May 3rd Constitution Day

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3 May Constitution Day
Konstytucja 3 Maja.jpg
3 May Constitution , by Matejko. King Stanisław II Augustus (left) enters St. John's Cathedral, where deputies will swear to uphold the Constitution.
Official nameŚwięto Konstytucji 3 Maja
Observed by Poland, parts of Lithuania
Typenational, secular, patriotic
SignificanceEnactment of the 3 May Constitution in 1791
Celebrations Parades
Date 3 May
Next time3 May 2019 (2019-05-03)
Frequencyannual

3 May Constitution Day (also 3rd May National Holiday; Polish : Święto Konstytucji 3 Maja) is a Polish national and public holiday that takes place on 3 May. The holiday celebrates the declaration of the Constitution of 3 May 1791. Festivities date back to the Duchy of Warsaw early in the 19th century, but it became an official holiday only in 1919 in the Second Polish Republic. Delisted during the times of the People's Republic of Poland, it was reestablished after the fall of communism in modern Poland.

Polish language West Slavic language spoken in Poland

Polish is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group. It is spoken primarily in Poland and serves as the native language of the Poles. In addition to being an official language of Poland, it is also used by Polish minorities in other countries. There are over 50 million Polish language speakers around the world and it is one of the official languages of the European Union.

A public holiday, national holiday or legal holiday is a holiday generally established by law and is usually a non-working day during the year.

Duchy of Warsaw client Napoleonic state from 1807 to 1815

The Duchy of Warsaw was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. Following Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia, the duchy was occupied by Prussian and Russian troops until 1815, when it was formally partitioned between the two countries at the Congress of Vienna. It covered the central and eastern part of present Poland and minor parts of present Lithuania and Belarus.

Contents

Background

May 3 parade in Bydgoszcz, Poland, 2014 Bdg Swieto3Maja strRynek 39 2014.jpg
May 3 parade in Bydgoszcz, Poland, 2014

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 is considered one of the most important achievements in the history of Poland, despite being in effect for only a year, until the Russo-Polish War of 1792. Historian Norman Davies calls it "the first constitution of its type in Europe"; other scholars also refer to it as the world's second oldest constitution. [a] [1] [2] [3] [4]

History of Poland aspect of history

The history of Poland has its roots in the migrations of Slavs, who established permanent settlements in the Polish lands during the Early Middle Ages. The first ruling dynasty, the Piasts, emerged by the 10th century AD. Duke Mieszko I is considered the de facto creator of the Polish state and is widely recognized for the adoption of Western Christianity that followed his baptism in 966. Mieszko's duchy of Poland was formally reconstituted as a medieval kingdom in 1025 by his son Bolesław I the Brave, known for military expansion under his rule. Perhaps the most successful of the Piast kings was the last one, Casimir III the Great, who presided over a brilliant period of economic prosperity and territorial aggrandizement before his death in 1370 without male heirs. The period of the Jagiellonian dynasty in the 14th–16th centuries brought close ties with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a cultural Renaissance in Poland and continued territorial expansion that culminated in the establishment of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569.

Norman Davies 20th and 21st-century British historian

Ivor Norman Richard Davies is a British-Polish historian noted for his publications on the history of Europe, Poland and the United Kingdom. He is a historian with special interest in Central and Eastern Europe. He is UNESCO Professor at the Jagiellonian University, professor emeritus at University College London, a visiting professor at the Collège d'Europe, and an honorary fellow at St Antony's College, Oxford. He was granted Polish citizenship in 2014.

Constitution Set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed

A constitution is an aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity, and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.

The 3 May Constitution was designed to redress long-standing political defects of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Constitution sought to supplant the existing anarchy fostered by some of the country's magnates with a more democratic constitutional monarchy. The adoption of the 3 May Constitution provoked the active hostility of the Commonwealth's neighbours, leading to the Second Partition of Poland in 1792, the Kościuszko Uprising of 1794 and the final, Third Partition of Poland, in 1795. In the words of two of its co-authors, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj, it was "the last will and testament of the expiring Fatherland." [5]

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Former European state

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – formally, the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and, after 1791, the Commonwealth of Poland – was a dual state, a bi-confederation of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch, who was both King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania. It was one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th– to 17th-century Europe. At its largest territorial extent, in the early 17th century, the Commonwealth covered almost 400,000 square miles (1,000,000 km2) and sustained a multi-ethnic population of 11 million.

Magnate noble family

A magnate, from the late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, "great", is a noble or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. In reference to the Middle Ages, the term is often used to distinguish higher territorial landowners and warlords such as counts, earls, dukes, and territorial-princes from the baronage.

Democracy system of government in which citizens vote directly in or elect representatives to form a governing body, sometimes called "rule of the majority"

Democracy is a system of government where the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association. "Rule of the majority" is sometimes referred to as democracy. Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes.

The memory of the 3 May Constitution—recognised by political scientists as a very progressive document for its time—for generations helped keep alive Polish aspirations for an independent and just society, and continued to inform the efforts of its authors' descendants. [6] In Poland it is viewed as a national symbol, and the culmination of all that was good and enlightened in Polish history and culture. [6]

A national symbol is a symbol of any entity considering itself and manifesting itself to the world as a national community: the sovereign states but also nations and countries in a state of colonial or other dependence, (con)federal integration, or even an ethnocultural community considered a 'nationality' despite having no political autonomy.

The 3 May anniversary of its adoption has been observed as Poland's most important civil holiday since Poland regained independence in 1918. [7] Its importance for the Polish people has been compared to that of 4 July to the Americans. [8]

Second Polish Republic 1918-1939 republic in Eastern Europe

The Second Polish Republic, commonly known as interwar Poland, refers to the country of Poland in the period between the First and Second World Wars (1918–1939). Officially known as the Republic of Poland, sometimes Commonwealth of Poland, the Polish state was re-established in 1918, in the aftermath of World War I. When, after several regional conflicts, the borders of the state were fixed in 1922, Poland's neighbours were Czechoslovakia, Germany, the Free City of Danzig, Lithuania, Latvia, Romania and the Soviet Union. It had access to the Baltic Sea via a short strip of coastline either side of the city of Gdynia. Between March and August 1939, Poland also shared a border with the then-Hungarian governorate of Subcarpathia. The Second Republic ceased to exist in 1939, when Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union and the Slovak Republic, marking the beginning of the European theatre of World War II.

Independence Day (United States) federal holiday in the United States

Independence Day is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating the Declaration of Independence of the United States on July 4, 1776. The Continental Congress declared that the thirteen American colonies were no longer subject to the monarch of Britain and were now united, free, and independent states. The Congress had voted to declare independence two days earlier, on July 2, but it was not declared until July 4.

Americans citizens, or natives, of the United States of America

Americans are nationals and citizens of the United States of America. Although nationals and citizens make up the majority of Americans, some dual citizens, expatriates, and permanent residents may also claim American nationality. The United States is home to people of many different ethnic origins. As a result, American culture and law does not equate nationality with race or ethnicity, but with citizenship and permanent allegiance.

Celebrations

Polish cavalryman in traditional dress uniform during the celebrations of 3 May 2007 POL national cavalery uniform XVIII c.jpg
Polish cavalryman in traditional dress uniform during the celebrations of 3 May 2007

3 May was first declared a holiday on 5 May 1791, and celebrated a year later, on 3 May 1792. [9] [10] Banned during the partitions of Poland it was celebrated in the Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, and unofficially in Congress Poland by various pro-independence activists, more openly during the times of insurrections, such as the November Uprising. [9] [10] [11] It was again made an official Polish holiday in April 1919 under the Second Polish Republic—the first holiday officially introduced in the Second Polish Republic. [7] The 3 May holiday was banned once more during World War II by the Nazi and Soviet occupiers. It was celebrated in the Polish cities in May 1945, although in a mostly spontaneous manner. [7] The celebrations were officially canceled shortly before 3 May 1946, and the anti-communist demonstrations took place later that day. [7] This, and the competition the date created with the communist-endorsed May 1 Labor Day celebrations, meant that the May 3 Constitution Day lost support with the authorities of the Polish People's Republic. [7] [9] [10] In 1947 it was officially rebranded Democratic Party Day and removed from the list of national holidays either then or in 1951 (sources vary). [7] [9] Until 1989, 3 May was a common day for anti-government and anti-communist protests. [7] 3 May was restored as an official Polish holiday in April 1990, after the fall of communism. [9] In 2007, 3 May was also declared a Lithuanian national holiday; the first joint celebration by the Polish Sejm and the Lithuanian Seimas took place on 3 May 2007. [12]

Holiday festive day set aside by custom or by law

A holiday is a day set aside by custom or by law on which normal activities, especially business or work including school, are suspended or reduced. Generally, holidays are intended to allow individuals to celebrate or commemorate an event or tradition of cultural or religious significance. Holidays may be designated by governments, religious institutions, or other groups or organizations. The degree to which normal activities are reduced by a holiday may depend on local laws, customs, the type of job held or personal choices.

Partitions of Poland Forced partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Partitions of Poland were three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place toward the end of the 18th century and ended the existence of the state, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years. The partitions were conducted by Habsburg Austria, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Russian Empire, which divided up the Commonwealth lands among themselves progressively in the process of territorial seizures and annexations.

Congress Poland former state in Eastern Europe

Congress Poland or Russian Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a sovereign Polish state. Until the November Uprising in 1831, the kingdom was in a personal union with the Tsars of Russia. Thereafter, the state was forcibly integrated into the Russian Empire over the course of the 19th century. In 1915, during World War I, it was replaced by the Central Powers with the nominal Regency Kingdom of Poland, which continued to exist until Poland regained independence in 1918.

In modern Poland, this day, free from work, sees many parades, exhibitions, concerts and public figure speeches. [13] Most important Polish politicians participate in those festivities; for example in 2011 President of Poland, Bronisław Komorowski, Prime Minister of Poland, Donald Tusk, and Marshal of the Sejm, Grzegorz Schetyna, Marshal of the Senate, Bogdan Borusewicz, and Minister of National Defence, Bogdan Klich, took part in the festivities in Warsaw. [13] The official festivities in Warsaw or in other Polish cities in the presence of the President and important dignitaries would include flag flying, cannon salvos, reading of the constitution preamble, and singing a patriotic song from the November Uprising, Witaj, majowa jutrzenko (Welcome, May Dawn) plus drill shows and the annual military parade. [13] Other events of the 2011 celebrations in Warsaw included a celebratory mass in St. John's Archcathedral, Warsaw, and presidential awards for achievements in the field of advancing Polish culture. [13] It is also held in various other Polish cities as well.

The holiday has been a focal point of ethnic celebrations of Polish-American pride in the Chicago area, where it is known as Polish Constitution Day, since 1892. [14] Poles in Chicago have continued this tradition to the present day, marking it with festivities and the annual Polish Constitution Day Parade; guests of national stature, most notably Bobby Kennedy, have attended over the years as a way to ingratiate themselves with Chicago Polonia. [14] [15] In Minnesota, first celebrations date to the 1870s. [16] In San Francisco, the anniversary of the May 3rd Constitution has been observed annually for decades in the Music Concourse at Golden Gate Park. [17] In Buffalo, NY there is a Polish Happy Hour Buffalo event held every 3 May at the Adam Mickiewicz Library. There is free admission, free Polish food, Polish music played, and a reading of the preamble of the Polish Constitution in English and in Polish. [18]

Notes

Related Research Articles

Stanisław August Poniatowski King of Poland

Stanisław II Augustus, who reigned as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1764 to 1795, was the last monarch of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He remains a controversial figure in Polish history. Recognized as a great patron of the arts and sciences and an initiator and firm supporter of progressive reforms, he is also remembered as the King of the Commonwealth whose election was marred by Russian intervention. He is criticized primarily for his failure to stand against the partitions, and thus to prevent the destruction of the Polish state.

Kościuszko Uprising uprising against the second partition of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

The Kościuszko Uprising was an uprising against the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia led by Tadeusz Kościuszko in the Commonwealth of Poland and the Prussian partition in 1794. It was a failed attempt to liberate the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from Russian influence after the Second Partition of Poland (1793) and the creation of the Targowica Confederation.

Polish–Russian War of 1792 war between the Commonwealth of Poland and the Russian Empire

The Polish–Russian War of 1792 was fought between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on one side, and the Targowica Confederation and the Russian Empire under Catherine the Great on the other.

Constitution of 3 May 1791 constitution

The Constitution of 3 May 1791 was adopted by the Great Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a dual monarchy comprising the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The legislation was designed to redress the Commonwealth's political defects and was preceded by a period of agitation for—and gradual introduction of—reforms beginning with the Convocation Sejm of 1764 and the election of Stanisław August Poniatowski as the Commonwealth's last king.

Holidays in Poland are regulated by the Non-working Days Act of 18 January 1951. The Act, as amended in 2010, currently defines thirteen public holidays.

Stanisław Staszic Philosopher and writer

Stanisław Wawrzyniec Staszic was a leading figure in the Polish Enlightenment: a Catholic priest, philosopher, geologist, writer, poet, translator and statesman. A physiocrat, monist, pan-Slavist and laissez-fairist, he supported many reforms in Poland. He is particularly remembered for his political writings during the "Great (Four-Year) Sejm" (1788–92) and for his support of the Constitution of 3 May 1791, adopted by that Sejm.

Ignacy Potocki writer

Count Roman Ignacy Potocki, generally known as Ignacy Potocki, was a Polish nobleman, member of the influential magnate Potocki family, owner of Klementowice and Olesin, a politician, writer, and office holder. He was the Marshal of the Permanent Council in 1778–1782, Grand Clerk of Lithuania from 1773, Court Marshal of Lithuania from 1783, Grand Marshal of Lithuania from 16 April 1791 to 1794.

Hugo Kołłątaj historian and philosopher

Hugo Stumberg Kołłątaj, alt. Kołłątay, was a prominent Polish constitutional reformer and educationalist, and one of the most prominent figures of the Polish Enlightenment.

Great Sejm

The Great Sejm, also known as the Four-Year Sejm was a Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that was held in Warsaw between 1788 and 1792. Its principal aim became to restore sovereignty to, and reform, the Commonwealth politically and economically.

Poland does not legally recognize same-sex unions, either in the form of marriage or civil unions. In 2012, the Supreme Court ruled that same-sex couples have limited legal rights in regards to the tenancy of a shared household. A few laws also guarantee certain limited rights for unmarried couples, including couples of the same sex. Same-sex spouses also have access to residency rights under EU law.

Patriotic Party

The Patriotic Party, also known as the Patriot Party or, in English, as the Reform Party, was a political movement in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the period of the Four-Year Sejm of 1788–92, whose chief achievement was the Constitution of 3 May 1791. The reformers aimed to strengthen the ailing political machinery of the Commonwealth, to bolster its military, and to reduce foreign political influence, particularly that of the Russian Empire. It has been called the first Polish political party, though it had no formal organizational structure. The Party was inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution, and its name, proudly used by themselves, was a tribute to the Dutch Patriots.

LGBT rights in Poland

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Poland face legal challenges not faced by non-LGBT residents. Both male and female same-sex sexual activity are legal in Poland. This was formally codified in 1932, and Poland introduced an equal age of consent for homosexuals and heterosexuals, which was set at 15. Poland provides LGBT people with the same rights as heterosexuals in certain areas: gay and bisexual men are allowed to donate blood, gays and bisexuals are allowed to serve openly in the Polish Armed Forces, and transgender people are allowed to change their legal gender following certain requirements including undergoing hormone replacement therapy. Polish law bans employment discrimination based on sexual orientation. No protections for education, health services, hate crimes and hate speech exist, however. In 2018, the Supreme Court ruled that it is illegal to deny goods and services on the basis of sexual orientation.

Constitution of the Polish Peoples Republic

The Constitution of the Polish People's Republic was passed on 22 July 1952. Created by the Polish communists in the Polish People's Republic, it was based on the 1936 Soviet Constitution, and it superseded the post-war provisional Small Constitution of 1947 which, in its turn, had declared null and void the pre-war April Constitution of Poland passed by the Polish Sejm in 1935. The Russian text of the Constitution was reviewed and 'corrected' by Joseph Stalin himself, and later translated into Polish. It legalized the communist legislature and practices as they had been introduced to Poland with the Polish Committee of National Liberation in the wake of Red Army progress in 1944.

The Polish–Lithuanian and Prussian alliance was a mutual defense alliance signed on 29 March 1790 in Warsaw between representatives of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Kingdom of Prussia. It was signed in the brief period when Prussia was seeking an ally against either Austria or Russia, and the Commonwealth was seeking guarantees that it would be able to carry out significant governmental reforms without foreign intervention.

Jan Dekert Polish merchant and activist

Jan Dekert or Jan Dekiert was a Polish merchant of German descent and political activist. Starting in the 1760s, he rose to become one of the most prominent merchants in the Polish capital of Warsaw. He was an activist arguing for more rights for the burghers in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth while opposing Jewish merchants. As the representative of Warsaw, he was elected a deputy to the Sejms of 1784 and 1786, as well as to the Great Sejm (1788–1792). He was the mayor of Warsaw (1789–1790), during which period he organized the Black Procession on 2 December 1789. This was a major step towards the passing of the Free Royal Cities Act enfranchising burghers, as one of the reforms of the Great Sejm and part of the Constitution of the 3rd May, 1791.

Black Procession

Black procession was a demonstration held by burghers of Polish royal cities in Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's capital of Warsaw on 2 December 1789, during the Great Sejm. It vastly contributed to the passage of a belated major urban reform.

<i>Constitution of May 3, 1791</i> (painting) painting by Jan Matejko

The Constitution of May 3, 1791 is an 1891 Romantic oil painting on canvas by the Polish artist Jan Matejko. It is a large piece, and one of Matejko's best known. It memorializes the Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, a milestone in the history of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the high point of the Polish Enlightenment.

Jan Suchorzewski Polish politician

Jan Suchorzewski was a Polish noble of the Zaremba coat of arms, soldier and politician. He held the title of the wojski of Wschowa. He was a deputy from Gniezno to the Sejm (parliament) of 1786 and deputy from Kalisz to the Great Sejm of 1788-1792. He would be best remembered for his dramatic, theatrical gestures from that period. Kazimierz Bartoszewicz compared Suchorzewski's look and attitude to that of Zagłoba from Henryk Sienkiewicz's famous trilogy, if more misguided. He became an opponent of the reforms, and joined the Confederation of Targowica.

Friends of the Constitution

Zgromadzenie Przyjaciół Konstytucji Rządowej was the first modern Polish political party, formed in May 1791, shortly after the adoption of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, by the efforts of the Patriotic Party. The purpose of the Friends of the Constitution was to defend the reformed political system and to introduce further reforms.

Armed Forces Day (Poland) national holiday of Poland, commemorates, the 1920 Polish victory at the Battle of Warsaw

Armed Forces Day, known also as the Feast of the Polish Armed Forces, is a national holiday celebrated annually on 15 August in Poland, commemorating the anniversary of the 1920 victory over Soviet Russia at the Battle of Warsaw during the Polish–Soviet War. Armed Forces Day is held in conjunction with the Day of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, itself a separate public holiday. The event is marked by military parades, equipment reviews, showcases and remembrances by all branches of the Polish Armed Forces across the country. One of the most prominent events of the day is in the capital Warsaw, which hosts a large military parade through the city's center. Originally celebrated during the Second Republic, the holiday was barred by authorities during the communist era beginning in 1947, only to be revived again in 1992.

References

  1. ↑ Albert P. Blaustein (1993). Constitutions of the world. Wm. S. Hein Publishing. p. 15. ISBN   978-0-8377-0362-6 . Retrieved 30 May 2011.
  2. ↑ Bill Moyers (5 May 2009). Moyers on Democracy. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 68. ISBN   978-0-307-38773-8 . Retrieved 30 May 2011.
  3. ↑ Sandra Lapointe; Jan Wolenski; Mathieu Marion (2009). The Golden Age of Polish Philosophy: Kazimierz Twardowski's Philosophical Legacy. Springer. p. 4. ISBN   978-90-481-2400-8 . Retrieved 30 May 2011.
  4. ↑ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 699. ISBN   0-19-820171-0.
  5. ↑ Machnikowski (1 December 2010). Contract Law in Poland. Kluwer Law International. p. 20. ISBN   978-90-411-3396-0 . Retrieved 12 July 2011.
  6. 1 2 George Sanford (2002). Democratic government in Poland: constitutional politics since 1989. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 11. ISBN   978-0-333-77475-5 . Retrieved 5 July 2011.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (in Polish) Rafał Kowalczyk and Łukasz Kamiński, Zakazane święta PRLu, Polskie Radio Online, May 3, 2008. Retrieved on 4 July 2011 (from the Internet Archive)
  8. ↑ Victor Zarnowitz (August 2008). Fleeing the Nazis, surviving the Gulag, and arriving in the free world: my life and times. ABC-CLIO. p. 6. ISBN   978-0-313-35778-7 . Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 (in Polish) "historyczny.pdf Konstytucja 3 Maja – rys historyczny". Archived from the original on 2011-07-05., University of Warsaw. Retrieved on 4 July 2011 (from the Internet Archive)
  10. 1 2 3 (in Polish) Adam Kożuchowski, Testament konającej republiki: Jak to było z Konstytucją 3 Maja , Polityka, 3rd May 2011. Retrieved on 12 July 2011
  11. ↑ (in Polish) Iwona Pogorzelska, "Prezentacja na podstawie artykułu Romany Guldon "Pamiątki Konstytucji 3 Maja przechowywane w zasobie Archiwum Państwowego w Kielcach."" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-27. (4.14 MB) Almanach Historyczny, T. 4, Kielce 2002. Retrieved on 4 July 2011
  12. ↑ (in Polish) Rok 2007: Przegląd wydarzeń, Tygnodnik Wileńszczyzny. Retrieved on 4 July 2011
  13. 1 2 3 4 (in Polish) Święto Konstytucji 3 Maja: „Nikt nie ma Polski na wyłączną własność”, TVP.pl, 3rd May 2011. Retrieved on 12 July 2011
  14. 1 2 Polish Constitution Day - Chicago 2011 - Mayor Daley's Last Parade, Polonia Music. Retrieved on 4 July 2011.
  15. ↑ Thousands Attend Polish Constitution Day Parade. CBS. May 7, 2011. Retrieved on 4 July 2011
  16. ↑ John Radzilowski (15 February 2005). Poles in Minnesota. Minnesota Historical Society. p. 41. ISBN   978-0-87351-516-0 . Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  17. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2011-07-14. Annual Polish May 3rd Constitution Day celebration at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco
  18. ↑ http://ampoleagle.com/may-polish-constitution-p8971-105.htm
  19. ↑ Dorothy Carrington (1973), "The Corsican Constitution of Pasquale Paoli (1755–1769)", The English Historical Review , 88:348 (July), p. 482. JSTOR   564654
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