Maya Region

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Maya Region
  • Maya Area
  • Maya Realm
Historical region
Maya civilization location map - geography.svg
The Maya Region / major rivers, mountain ranges, and regions labelled / 2015 map by S. Burchell
Mesoamerica topographic map-blank.svg
Red pog.svg
Maya Region
Location of the Maya Region in Mesoamerica
Coordinates: 17°N90°W / 17°N 90°W / 17; -90
Location Belize, Guatemala, western El Salvador, northwestern Honduras, southeastern Mexico
Part of Mesoamerica
Area
 • Total125,000 sq mi (320,000 km2)a
Dimensions
 • Length540 mi (870 km)b
 • Width410 mi (660 km)b
Highest elevation13,845 ft (4,220 m)c
(Tajumulco Volcano)
Subdivisions
a cf [note 1]

b cf [note 2]

c cf [note 3]

The Maya Region is cultural, first order subdivision of Mesoamerica, located in the eastern half of the latter. Though first settled by Palaeoindians by at least 10,000 BC, it is now most commonly characterised and recognised as the territory which encompassed the Maya civilisation in the pre-Columbian era.

Contents

Extent

The Maya Region is firmly bounded to the north, east, and southwest by the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the Pacific Ocean, respectively. [1] [2] It is less firmly bounded to the west and southeast by 'zones of cultural interaction and transition between Maya and non-Maya peoples.' [3] [2] The western transition between Maya and non-Maya peoples roughly corresponds to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, while the southeastern one roughly corresponds to a line running northwards from the mouth of the Lempa River to that of the Ulua River. [4] [2] [5] [note 4]

Divisions

The Maya Region is traditionally divided into three cultural and geographic, first order subdivisions, namely, the Maya Lowlands, Maya Highlands, and the Maya Pacific. [6] [note 5] The Region's internal borders, like some of its external ones, are not usually precisely fixed, as they are rather demarcated by 'subtle environmental changes or transitions from one zone to another.' [7] [8] Additionally, the Lowlands, Highlands, and Pacific are often further subdivided along similarly imprecise lines, giving rise to a myriad roughly-demarcated second order subdivisions for the Maya Region. [9] [10]

Lowlands

The Maya Lowlands are a low-lying karstic plain stretching from Campeche in Mexico through northern Guatemala and into northwestern Honduras, thereby encompassing all of the Yucatan Peninsula and its abutting plains (including all of Belize). [11] The plain generally lies below 2,625 feet (800 m). [12] [note 6] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 77–95 °F (25–35 °C) and 20–120 inches (510–3,050 mm), respectively. [13] Wet seasons range from six to eleven months (usually starting in May or June), with dry seasons ranging from one to six months. [13] [note 7]

Highlands

The Maya Highlands are a geologically-active east-west band of peaks and valleys stretching from Tabasco in Mexico through central Guatemala and into northwestern Honduras, and generally topping 2,625 feet (800 m). [14] [15] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 59–77 °F (15–25 °C) and 80–120 inches (2,000–3,000 mm), respectively. [16] Wet seasons typically last eight months (May–December), with dry seasons typically compressed to four (January–April). [16] [note 8]

Pacific

The Maya Pacific, also known as the Pacific Coastal Plain, is a fertile volcanic-sedimentary plain stretching along the Pacific coast from Chiapas in Mexico through southern Guatemala and into western El Salvador. [17] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 77–95 °F (25–35 °C) and 80–120 inches (2,000–3,000 mm), respectively. [18] Wet seasons typically last eight months (May–December), with dry seasons typically compressed to four (January–April). [18]

Geography

Physical

The Maya Region is 'one of the most varied environments on earth.' [19] Its terrain ranges from vast sea-level plains to near-inaccessible peaks topping 10,000 feet (3,000 m). [19] [20] Its soils range from rich alluvial and volcanic types to poor karstic ones, resulting in vegetation ranging from lush to sparse. [19] [8] Mean annual temperatures and rainfall range within 59–95 °F (15–35 °C) and 20–160 inches (500–4,000 mm), respectively. [21] [22] Wet seasons range from six to eleven months, with dry seasons ranging from one to six months. [23] [note 9] Surface freshwater is readily available year-round in some areas, and virtually absent in others. [7] [24] Nonetheless, broadly speaking, the Region is described as featuring two geographic zones , namely, lowlands and highlands, with the former lying below circa 1,000–2,625 feet (305–800 m), and the latter above. [25] [26] Naturally, lowlands are predominantly found within the Maya Lowlands and Pacific, with highlands generally restricted to the Maya Highlands. [26]

Climate

The Maya Region is generally described as having two climes, a cool, temperate one (prevalent in highlands), and a hot, tropical one (prevalent in lowlands). [19] Each of these experiences two seasons, a wet one, and a dry one. Rainfall in the wet season is usually heaviest during June and October, and is thereby described as 'following a double-peaked distribution.' [27]

Scholars had 'usually assumed that the climatic conditions which now [2010s] prevail in the Maya [Region] have always been the same, all through Maya prehistory and history[; b]ut recent palaeoclimatic research has challenged this assumption, revealing far more climatic fluctuation that previously anticipated.' [28] [29]

Geology

History

Pre-Cenozoic

Middle America, including the Maya Region, is thought to have taken shape sometime after 170 million years ago. [30] Its formation is thought to have 'involved [the] complex movement of [various] crustal blocks and terrains between the two pre-existing continental masses [ie North and South America].' [31] Details of the pre-Cenozoic portion of this process (ie 170–67 million years ago), however, are not widely agreed upon. [31] [note 10] Nonetheless, it has been proposed that the northern Lowlands were subaerially exposed by some 150 million years ago. [32] [33] [note 11]

Cenozoic

Details of the Cenozoic (ie 66–0 million years ago) geologic history of Middle America, including the Maya Region, are relatively more widely agreed upon. [31] In broad strokes, the Maya Highlands and Pacific are thought to have been subaerially exposed by some 40 million years ago, with these being initially separated from the northern Lowlands by the incipient Bay of Honduras. [34] The Bay is thought to have closed by at least 20 million years ago, thereby finally linking the northern and southern portions of the Maya Region together. [35] [36] [note 12]

Timeline

Prominent geologic events in or relevant to the Maya Region. [note 13]
StartEndUnitEpochEventNotes
165165Ma Middle Jurassic Gulf of Mexico seafloor spreading startsinc. exposed northern Lowlands; cf  [37]
144144Ma Early Cretaceous Caribbean Sea seafloor spreading startscf  [37] [note 14]
120120Ma Early Cretaceous Chortis Block subduction into southwestern Mexico stopscf  [38] [note 15]
6565Ma Palaeocene Chicxulub impact cf  [39]
4949Ma Eocene Cayman Trough rifting startscf  [40]
2620Ma Oligocene – Miocene Cayman Trough rifting slows downcf  [40]
2322Ma Miocene Farallon Plate rifting startscf  [41]
2222Ma Miocene Cocos Plate subduction into Chortis Block startsinc. end of eastwards migration of Chortis Block; inc. possible uplift of Chortis Block; inc. formation of Bay of Honduras ie initial linking of northern and southern portions of the Maya Region; cf  [42]

Morphology

Provinces

The Maya Region is thought to fully or partially encompass at least fourteen geologic provinces. [43] [44] [note 16]

Geologic provinces within the Maya Region per 21st century literature. [43] [44] [note 17]
USGS No.NameLocationNotes
5308Yucatan Platformnorthern Lowlands–
6117Greater Antilles Deformed Beltoffshore Lowlands–
6120Cayman Troughsouthern Lowlands–
6125Maya Mountainscentral Lowlands–
5305Villahermosa Upliftwestern Lowlands–
5306Macuspana Basinwestern Lowlands–
5304Saline–Comalcalco Basinwestern Lowlands–
5302Veracruz Basinwestern Lowlands–
5303Tuxla Upliftwestern Lowlands–
5311Chiapas Massifwestern Lowlands–
5310Sierra Madre de Chiapas–Peten Foldbeltsouthern Lowlands, northern Highlands–
6088Pacific Offshore BasinPacific–
6122Chiapas Massif–Nuclear Central AmericaHighlands–
6087Choco Pacific BasinHighlands–

Basins

The Maya Region is believed to fully or partially comprehend at least five sedimentary basins. [45]

Sedimentary basins within the Maya Region per 21st century literature. [45] [note 18]
Evenick IDNameLocationNotes
119Campechenorthern Lowlands–
519Peten–Corozalcentral Lowlands–
757Yucatannorthern Lowlands–
647Surestewestern Lowlands–
–Limon–Bocas del ToroPacific, southern Highlands–

Tectonics

The majority of the Maya Region sits on the Maya Block of the North American Plate, though its southernmost extremes extend beyond this crustal fragment into the neighbouring Chortis Block of the Caribbean Plate. [46] [47] [48] [note 19] The Region notably houses the active Motagua–Polochic Fault Zone in the south, part of the Central American Volcanic Front in the southwest, and further borders the Eastern Mexican Transform to the west. [49] [50] [51] [note 20]

Stratigraphy

The Maya Region's pre-Mesozoic crystalline basement is only exposed in the Mixtequita or Guichicovi Complex, the Chiapas Massif, the Altos Cuchumatanes, the Maya Mountains, and along the Chicxulub impact crater. [52] It is elsewhere blanketed by extensive Mesozoic sedimentary cover. [53] [54]

Notes and references

Explanatory footnotes

  1. ↑ As per Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 23.
  2. ↑ As per Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 24 within 10 mi (16 km) accuracy. However, Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 200 give these values as 550 mi (890 km) and 350 mi (560 km), respectively.
  3. ↑ As per Goldberg 2008, para 1 and Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 29, fig. 1.4.
  4. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 28 draw the southeastern border as 'a line from the lower Lempa River in central El Salvador northward to Lake Yojoa and along the Ulua River to the Gulf of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea.' Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 197 give the same as a line 'defined along the valleys of the Ulua [River], flowing north into the Caribbean, and the Lempa [River], running through central El Salvador to the Pacific.'
  5. ↑ However, Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 200 give the Region's traditional first order subdivisions as either (i) the Northern Lowlands, the Southern Lowlands, and the Highlands (including the Pacific), or as (ii) the Northern, Central, and Southern Areas. Carrasco 2006, article 'Mesoamerica' sec. 'Overview' para. 6, for instance, employ the first of these subdivisions (labelled (i)), while Coe & Houston 2015, ch. 1, fig. 1, and sec. 'Areas' employ the latter (labelled (ii)). Furthermore, some scholars prefer a simpler division of the Region into two first order subdivisions, namely, (i) the Lowlands and the Highlands (including the Pacific), or (ii) the Northern and Southern Areas. Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 203–204, for instance, employ the first of these (labelled (i)), while xx employ the latter (labelled (ii)).
  6. ↑ The Maya Mountains top the 2,625 feet (800 m) mark, but are nonetheless encompassed by the Lowlands (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 42).
  7. ↑ Wet seasons given as lasting eight months, from May through December, in Coe & Houston 2015, ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 11.
  8. ↑ Wet seasons given as lasting seven months, 'roughly from May through early November,' in Coe & Houston 2015, ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 3.
  9. ↑ Though Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 202 assert a June–November wet season, without immediately noting variation in its start-date nor duration.
  10. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 10 suggest that geologic models of the formation of Middle America differ most significantly in their handling of the Caribbean Plate, with one group of models proposing its formation in the Pacific and subsequent movement to its present location, and another group proposing its formation in its present location.
  11. ↑ However, it has been further proposed that this portion of the Lowlands was subsequently re-submerged during 130–72 million years ago, with thick carbonate deposition beginning by at least 80 million years ago (DTM 2013, sec. Mesozoic maps nos. NAM_key-130Ma_EarK to NAM_key-72Ma_LateK, Ahmad & Escalona 2014, sec. 'Introduction' and sec. 'Preliminary Results').
  12. ↑ The northern and eastern coasts of the Region, however, are not thought to have been fully subaerially exposed until some 5–2 million years ago (DTM 2013, sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-5Ma_Plio and NAM_key_Pleist_Wisc). The Region's coastlines, which were initially more expansive than its present-day ones, are thought to have reached modern dimensions due to rising sea levels some 11–8 thousand years ago (DTM 2013, sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key_Present and NAM_key_Pleist_Holo).
  13. ↑ In the Unit column, million years ago written as Ma.
  14. ↑ Alternative models date the formation of the present-day Caribbean to during 130–80 million years ago (Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 211).
  15. ↑ Event recorded by 'a well-dated, 120 Ma-old subduction complex along the northern edge of the Chortis block presently exposed on the southern margin of the Motagua valley of Guatemala' (Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 212). Dated to Late Cretaceous by Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003, pp. 32–33.
  16. ↑ Alternative divisions of the Maya Region into geologic provinces have been offered, for instance, by Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 77, fig. 3.1.
  17. ↑ USGS No. is the unique USGS province number as per French & Schenk 2004 and French & Schenk 2006.
  18. ↑ Evenick ID is the unique basin identifier ie UBI as per Evenick 2021, app. A supp. no. 1. The Evenick ID for the Limon–Bocas del Toro Basin is not given in Evenick 2021, app. A supp. no. 1, though falls within 353–365, inclusive, given the alphabetical assignment of identifiers used therein.
  19. ↑ Additionally, a northeastern portion of the Maya Region, in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, might extend beyond the Maya Block into the neighbouring Oaxaquia Block ie the Juarez, Cuicateco, or Oaxaquia Block, Terrane, or microcontinent (Ross et al. 2021, p. 243, fig. 1).
  20. ↑ It further borders the Salina Cruz Fault to the west, and further houses the Rio Hondo Faults in the east (Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, pp. 278, 280–281, Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003, p. 32).

Short citations

  1. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 26.
  2. 1 2 3 Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 197.
  3. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 26–28.
  4. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 26–28, 32.
  5. ↑ Creamer 1987, p. 44.
  6. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 29–30.
  7. 1 2 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 30.
  8. 1 2 Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 203.
  9. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 30–31.
  10. ↑ Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 203–204.
  11. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 41–42.
  12. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 42.
  13. 1 2 Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 45–46, 49.
  14. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 34.
  15. ↑ Carrasco 2006, article 'Maya Highlands' para. 1-2.
  16. 1 2 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 34.
  17. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 31.
  18. 1 2 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 32.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 29.
  20. ↑ Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 201–202.
  21. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 29–31.
  22. ↑ Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 202.
  23. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 31-32, 34, 45-46, 49.
  24. ↑ Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 202–203.
  25. ↑ Coe & Houston 2015, ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 2.
  26. 1 2 Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 30, 32, 34, 42.
  27. ↑ Coe & Houston 2015, ch. 1, sec. 'Setting,' para. 3.
  28. ↑ Coe & Houston 2015, ch. 1, sec. 'Climate change and its cultural impact,' para. 1.
  29. ↑ Nichols & Pool 2012, ch. 1, sec. 'Ecology and environment,' para. 1.
  30. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 9.
  31. 1 2 3 Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 10.
  32. ↑ DTM 2013, sec. Mesozoic maps nos. NAM_key-170Ma_MJur and NAM_key-150Ma_LJur.
  33. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 210, fig. 8.4 (a) to (b).
  34. ↑ DTM 2013, sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-50Ma_Eocene and NAM_key-40Ma_Eocene.
  35. ↑ DTM 2013, sec. Cenozoic maps nos. NAM_key-35Ma_Eocene_Olig and NAM_key-20Ma_Ear_Mio.
  36. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 215, fig. 8.4 (g) to (h).
  37. 1 2 Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, pp. 209–210.
  38. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, pp. 211–212.
  39. ↑ Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003, p. 31.
  40. 1 2 Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, pp. 208, 217.
  41. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, pp. 208, 213, 217.
  42. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, pp. 213–215.
  43. 1 2 French & Schenk 2004.
  44. 1 2 French & Schenk 2006.
  45. 1 2 Evenick 2021, pp. 4, 6 and app. A supp. no. 1.
  46. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 3, fig. 1.1.
  47. ↑ Ross et al. 2021, p. 243, fig. 1.
  48. ↑ Martens 2009, pp. 6–9.
  49. ↑ Ross et al. 2021, pp. 242–243.
  50. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 125, fig. 4.1.
  51. ↑ Gómez-Pompa et al. 2003, p. 33.
  52. ↑ Ross et al. 2021, pp. 242, 244.
  53. ↑ Ross et al. 2021, p. 242.
  54. ↑ Bundschuh & Alvarado 2012, p. 10, fig. 1.4.

Full citations

Print

  1. Adams, Richard E. W.; Macleod, Murdo J., eds. (2000a). Mesoamerica, Part 1 . The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521351652. ISBN   9781139053778. S2CID   163512332.
  2. Adams, Richard E. W.; Macleod, Murdo J., eds. (2000b). Mesoamerica, Part 2 . The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521652049. ISBN   9781139053464.
  3. Braswell, Geoffrey E., ed. (2022). 3,000 Years of War and Peace in the Maya Lowlands: Identity, Politics, and Violence . Routledge archaeology of the ancient Americas. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781351268004. ISBN   9781351268004. S2CID   246542762.
  4. Bundschuh, Jochen; Alvarado, Guillermo E., eds. (2012) [2007]. Central America: Geology, Resources and Hazards (Reprint of 1st ed.). London: Taylor & Francis. doi:10.1201/9780203947043. ISBN   9780429074370. OCLC   905983675.
  5. Carrasco, Davíd, ed. (2006) [2001]. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures: The Civilisations of Mexico and Central America (Online reprint of 1st print ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001. ISBN   9780195188431.
  6. Coe, Michael D.; Houston, Stephen D. (2015) [1966]. The Maya (9th ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. OCLC   915597000.
  7. Demarest, Arthur A., ed. (2007) [2004]. Ancient Maya: The rise and fall of a rainforest civilization. Case Studies in Early Societies (Reprint of 1st ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. OCLC   717693582. OL   3440009M.
  8. Ford, Anabel; Nigh, Ronald (2015). The Maya forest garden: eight millennia of sustainable cultivation of the tropical woodlands. New frontiers in historical ecology. Vol. 6. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. ISBN   9781611329971. OCLC   894750131.
  9. Gómez-Pompa, Arturo; Allen, Michael F.; Fedick, Scott L.; Jiménez-Osornio, Juan J., eds. (2003). The Lowland Maya Area: Three Millennia at the Human-Wildland Interface. Binghamton, NY: Food Products Press. ISBN   1560229705. OCLC   50725221.
  10. Houk, Brett A., ed. (2019). Approaches to Monumental Landscapes of the Ancient Maya: A Legacy of Human Occupation . Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN   9780813057347. OCLC   1137019195.
  11. Hutson, Scott R.; Ardren, Traci, eds. (2020). The Maya World. Routledge worlds. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781351029582. ISBN   9781351029582.
  12. Nichols, Deborah L.; Pool, Christopher A., eds. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology . Oxford Handbooks (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-539093-3. OCLC   1109248998.
  13. Sharer, Robert J.; Traxler, Loa P., eds. (2006) [1946]. The Ancient Maya (6th ed.). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. hdl:2027/mdp.39015062626216. ISBN   9780804748179. OCLC   57577446.

Journals

  1. Bhattacharya, Tripti; Krause, Samantha; Penny, Dan; Wahl, David (27 September 2022). "Progress report: Drought and water management in ancient Maya society". Progress in Physical Geography: 1–16. doi:10.1177/03091333221129784. S2CID   252583845.
  2. Coe, William R. (January 1955). "Early Man in the Maya Area" . American Antiquity. 20 (3): 271–273. doi:10.2307/277005. JSTOR   277005.
  3. Creamer, Winifred (1987). "Mesoamerica as a Concept: An Archaeological View from Central America". Latin American Research Review. 22 (1): 35–62. doi: 10.1017/S0023879100016423 . JSTOR   2503542. S2CID   131671104.
  4. Evenick, J. C. (2021). "Glimpses into Earth's history using a revised global sedimentary basin map". Earth-Science Reviews. article no. 103564. 215 (sn): 103564. Bibcode:2021ESRv..21503564E. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103564 . S2CID   233950439.
  5. Franco-Gaviria, Felipe; Caballero-Rodríguez, Dayenari; Correa-Metrio, Alexander; Pérez, Liseth; Schwalb, Antje; Cohuo, Sergio; Macario-González, Laura (April 2018). "The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Maya lands". Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana. 70 (1): 61–78. doi: 10.18268/bsgm2018v70n1a4 .
  6. Glover, Jeffrey B.; Rissolo, Dominique; Beddows, Patricia A.; Jaijel, Roy; Smith, Derek; Goodman-Tchernov, Beverly (9 June 2022). "The Proyecto Costa Escondida: Historical ecology and the study of past coastal landscapes in the Maya area" . The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology. 19 (3): 505–524. doi:10.1080/15564894.2022.2061652.
  7. Gunn, Joel D.; Matheny, Ray T.; Folan, William J. (14 August 2002). "Climate-change Studies in the Maya Area: A diachronic analysis" . Ancient Mesoamerica. 13 (1): 79–84. doi:10.1017/S0956536102131105. S2CID   29468376.
  8. Hartlett, Harley Harris (January 1932). "A Biological Survey of the Maya Area" . Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 59 (1): 7–20. doi:10.2307/2480459. JSTOR   2480459.
  9. Hodell, David A.; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brenner, Mark; Kamenov, George (May 2004). "Spatial variation of strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) in the Maya region: a tool for tracking ancient human migration" . Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (5): 585–601. Bibcode:2004JArSc..31..585H. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.009.
  10. Kennett, Douglas J.; Lipson, Mark; Prufer, Keith M.; Mora-Marín, David; George, Richard J.; Rohland, Nadin Rohland; Robinson, Mark; Trask, Willa R.; Edgar, Heather H. J.; Hill, Ethan C.; Ray, Erin E.; Lynch, Paige; Moes, Emily; O'Donnell, Lexi; Harper, Thomas K.; Kate, Emily J.; Ramos, Josue; Morris, John; Gutierrez, Said M.; Ryan, Timothy M.; Culleton, Brendan J.; Awe, Jaime J.; Reich, David (22 March 2022). "South-to-north migration preceded the advent of intensive farming in the Maya region". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 1–10 of article no. 1530. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.1530K. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-29158-y . PMC   8940966 . PMID   35318319. S2CID   247617021.
  11. Kuil, Linda; Carr, Gemma; Prskawetz, Alexia; Salinas, José Luis; Viglione, Alberto; Blöschl, Günter (March 2019). "Learning from the Ancient Maya: Exploring the Impact of Drought on Population Dynamics" . Ecological Economics. 157: 1–16. Bibcode:2019EcoEc.157....1K. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2018.10.018 . S2CID   53700665.
  12. Lohse, Jon C.; Morgan, Molly; Jones, John G.; Brenner, Mark; Curtis, Jason; Hamilton, W. Derek; Cardona, Karla (10 August 2022). "Early Maize in the Maya Area" . Latin American Antiquity. 33 (4): 1–16 of FirstView articles. doi:10.1017/laq.2022.55. S2CID   251506698.
  13. Nooren, Kees; Hoek, Wim Z.; Dermody, Brian J.; Galop, Didier; Metcalfe, Sarah; Islebe, Gerald; Middelkoop, Hans (20 August 2018). "Climate impact on the development of Pre-Classic Maya civilisation" . Climate of the Past. 14 (8): 1253–1273. Bibcode:2018CliPa..14.1253N. doi: 10.5194/cp-14-1253-2018 . S2CID   55370409.
  14. Ross, C. H.; Stockli, D. F.; Rasmussen, C.; Gulick, S. P. S.; Graaff, S. J.; Claeys, P.; Zhao, J. (2021). "Evidence of Carboniferous arc magmatism preserved in the Chicxulub impact structure" . Geological Society of America Bulletin. 134 (1–2): 241–260. doi:10.1130/B35831.1. hdl: 10044/1/99016 . S2CID   238043996.
  15. Sharpe, Ashley E.; Emery, Kitty F.; Inomata, Takeshi; Krigbaum, John (19 March 2018). "Earliest isotopic evidence in the Maya region for animal management and long-distance trade at the site of Ceibal, Guatemala". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (14): 3605–3610. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.3605S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1713880115 . PMC   5889628 . PMID   29555750.
  16. Sharpe, Ashley E.; Kamenov, George D.; Gilli, Adrian; Hodell, David L.; Emery, Kitty F.; Brenner, Mark; Krigbaum, John (2 November 2016). "Lead (Pb) Isotope Baselines for Studies of Ancient Human Migration and Trade in the Maya Region". PLOS ONE. 11 (11): 1–28 of article no. e0164871. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1164871S. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164871 . PMC   5091867 . PMID   27806065.
  17. Scherer, Andrew K.; de Carteret, Alyce; Newman, Sarah (June 2015). "Local water resource variability and oxygen isotopic reconstructions of mobility: A case study from the Maya area" . Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. 2: 666–676. Bibcode:2015JArSR...2..666S. doi:10.1016/j.jasrep.2014.11.006.
  18. Thornton, Ern Kennedy; Emery, Kitty F.; Steadman, David W.; Speller, Camilla; Matheny, Ray; Yang, Dongya (8 August 2012). "Earliest Mexican turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the Maya region; implications for pre-Hispanic animal trade and the timing of turkey domestication". PLOS ONE. 7 (8): 1–8 of article no. e42630. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742630T. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0042630 . PMC   3414452 . PMID   22905156.
  19. Wrobel, Gabriel D.; Hoggarth, Julie A.; Marshall, Aubree (14 December 2021). "Before the Maya: A Review of Paleoindian and Archaic Human Skeletons Found in the Maya Region" . Ancient Mesoamerica. 32 (3): 475–485. doi: 10.1017/S0956536121000250 . S2CID   245125288.

Theses

  1. Duarte, Edward Fernando (2022). Hydroclimate variability in Central America during the Holocene inferred from lacustrine sediments in Lake Izabal, eastern Guatemala (PhD Thesis). Missouri University of Science and Technology.
  2. Harvey, William James (March 2019). The Central American Isthmus: ecological dynamics of the middle-late Holocene (DPhil Thesis). University of Oxford.
  3. Martens, Uwe (2009). Geologic evolution of the Maya Block (southern edge of the North American plate): An example of terrane transferral and crustal recycling (PhD Thesis). Stanford University. ProQuest   304999167.

Other

  1. Ahmad, S. S.; Escalona, A. (June 2014). "Paleogeographic Reconstruction of Northern Caribbean Region from Late Cretaceous to Recent". Conference Proceedings, 76th EAGE Conference and Exhibition 2014, Jun 2014, Volume 2014. European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers. pp. 1–3. doi: 10.3997/2214-4609.20141659 . hdl: 11250/224374 .
  2. DTM (June 2013). Deep Time Maps North America Key Time Slices (Map). 1:1,000,000. Sedona, AZ: Colorado Plateau Geosystems.
  3. French, C. D.; Schenk, C. J. (2004). Map showing geology, oil and gas fields, and geologic provinces of the Caribbean Region (Map). 1:2,500,000. Open-File Report 97-470-K. Reston, Virg.: U.S. Geological Survey. doi: 10.3133/ofr97470K .
  4. French, C. D.; Schenk, C. J. (2006). Map showing geology, oil and gas fields, and geologic provinces of the Gulf of Mexico region (Map). 1:2,500,000. Open-File Report 97-470-L. Reston, Virg.: U.S. Geological Survey. doi:10.3133/ofr97470L.
  5. Goldberg, Maren (17 January 2008). "Tajumulco Volcano" . Britannica Academic. Chicago, Ill.: Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica ID place/Tajumulco-Volcano.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithic period in Mesoamerica</span> Prehistoric period in Mesoamerica

In the History of Mesoamerica, the stage known as the Paleo-Indian period is the era in the scheme of Mesoamerican chronology which begins with the very first indications of human habitation within the Mesoamerican region, and continues until the general onset of the development of agriculture and other proto-civilisation traits. The conclusion of this stage may be assigned to approximately 9000 BP, and the transition to the succeeding Archaic period is not a well-defined one.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish conquest of Guatemala</span> 1524–1697 defeat of Mayan kingdoms

In a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonization of the Americas, Spanish colonisers gradually incorporated the territory that became the modern country of Guatemala into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain. Before the conquest, this territory contained a number of competing Mesoamerican kingdoms, the majority of which were Maya. Many conquistadors viewed the Maya as "infidels" who needed to be forcefully converted and pacified, disregarding the achievements of their civilization. The first contact between the Maya and European explorers came in the early 16th century when a Spanish ship sailing from Panama to Santo Domingo was wrecked on the east coast of the Yucatán Peninsula in 1511. Several Spanish expeditions followed in 1517 and 1519, making landfall on various parts of the Yucatán coast. The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a prolonged affair; the Maya kingdoms resisted integration into the Spanish Empire with such tenacity that their defeat took almost two centuries.

Río Azul is an archaeological site of the Pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is the most important site in the Río Azul National Park in the Petén Department of northern Guatemala, close to the borders of Mexico and Belize. Río Azul is situated to the southeast of the Azul river and its apogee dates to the Early Classic period.

Kinal is a major pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site in the Petén Department of the modern-day Petén Department of northern Guatemala. The major occupational phase for the site dates from the Late Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology, with evidence for a substantial and expansionary building program dating from the first half of the 8th century AD. Kinal was discovered in the 1960s by archaeologist Ian Graham while he was carrying out an archaeological survey of the region, although no excavations were undertaken at the site at that time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maya civilization</span> Mesoamerican civilization (c. 2000 BC – 1697 AD)

The Maya civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization that existed from antiquity to the early modern period. It is known by its ancient temples and glyphs (script). The Maya script is the most sophisticated and highly developed writing system in the pre-Columbian Americas. The civilization is also noted for its art, architecture, mathematics, calendar, and astronomical system.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish conquest of the Maya</span> Conquest dating from 1511 to 1697

The Spanish conquest of the Maya was a protracted conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, in which the Spanish conquistadores and their allies gradually incorporated the territory of the Late Postclassic Maya states and polities into the colonial Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Maya occupied the Maya Region, an area that is now part of the modern countries of Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador; the conquest began in the early 16th century and is generally considered to have ended in 1697.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Potbelly sculpture</span> Mesoamerican sculptures of obese people

Potbelly sculptures are in-the-round sculptures of obese human figures carved from boulders. They are a distinctive element of the sculptural tradition in the southern Maya area of Mesoamerica. The precise purpose of potbelly sculptures is unknown, although they appear to have been the focus of public veneration and ritual directed by the ruling elite. Although this sculptural tradition is found within the southern Maya area, it has been recognized that the sculptures themselves are non-Maya.

Cuello is a Maya archaeological site in northern Belize. The site is that of a farming village with a long occupational history. It was originally dated to 2000 BC, but these dates have now been corrected and updated to around 1200 BC. Its inhabitants lived in pole-and-thatch houses that were built on top of low plaster-coated platforms. The site contains residential groups clustered around central patios. It also features the remains of a steam bath dating to approximately 900 BC, making it the oldest steam bath found to date in the Maya lowlands. Human burials have been associated with the residential structures; the oldest have no surviving burial relics, but from 900 BC onwards, they were accompanied by offerings of ceramic vessels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maya stelae</span> Intricately carved stone slabs made by the Pre-Columbian Maya

Maya stelae are monuments that were fashioned by the Maya civilization of ancient Mesoamerica. They consist of tall, sculpted stone shafts and are often associated with low circular stones referred to as altars, although their actual function is uncertain. Many stelae were sculpted in low relief, although plain monuments are found throughout the Maya region. The sculpting of these monuments spread throughout the Maya area during the Classic Period, and these pairings of sculpted stelae and circular altars are considered a hallmark of Classic Maya civilization. The earliest dated stela to have been found in situ in the Maya lowlands was recovered from the great city of Tikal in Guatemala. During the Classic Period almost every Maya kingdom in the southern lowlands raised stelae in its ceremonial centre.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mayan cities</span> Centres of ancient Maya civilization in Mesoamerica

Maya cities were the centres of population of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica. They served the specialised roles of administration, commerce, manufacturing and religion that characterised ancient cities worldwide. Maya cities tended to be more dispersed than cities in other societies, even within Mesoamerica, as a result of adaptation to a lowland tropical environment that allowed food production amidst areas dedicated to other activities. They lacked the grid plans of the highland cities of central Mexico, such as Teotihuacán and Tenochtitlan. Maya kings ruled their kingdoms from palaces that were situated within the centre of their cities. Cities tended to be located in places that controlled trade routes or that could supply essential products. This allowed the elites that controlled trade to increase their wealth and status. Such cities were able to construct temples for public ceremonies, thus attracting further inhabitants to the city. Those cities that had favourable conditions for food production, combined with access to trade routes, were likely to develop into the capital cities of early Maya states.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Twin-pyramid complex</span> Style of Mayan structure

A twin-pyramid complex or twin-pyramid group was an architectural innovation of the Maya civilization of ancient Mesoamerica. Twin-pyramid complexes were regularly built at the great city of Tikal in the central Petén Basin of Guatemala to celebrate the end of the 20-year kʼatun cycle of the Maya Long Count Calendar. A twin-pyramid complex has been identified at Yaxha, a large city that was 30 kilometres (19 mi) to the southeast of Tikal. Another has been mapped at Ixlu, and Zacpeten appears also to possess at least one twin-pyramid complex and possibly two. These examples outside of Tikal itself indicate that their cities were closely linked to Tikal politically.

The history of Maya civilization is divided into three principal periods: the Preclassic, Classic and Postclassic periods; these were preceded by the Archaic Period, which saw the first settled villages and early developments in agriculture. Modern scholars regard these periods as arbitrary divisions of chronology of the Maya civilization, rather than indicative of cultural evolution or decadence. Definitions of the start and end dates of period spans can vary by as much as a century, depending on the author. The Preclassic lasted from approximately 3000 BC to approximately 250 AD; this was followed by the Classic, from 250 AD to roughly 950 AD, then by the Postclassic, from 950 AD to the middle of the 16th century. Each period is further subdivided:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maya Block</span> Tectonic block under the Yucatan Peninsula

The Maya Block, also known as the Maya Terrane, Yucatan Block, or Yucatan–Chiapas Block, is a physiographic or geomorphic region and tectonic or crustal block in the southernmost portion of the North American Plate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yucatán Platform</span> Yucatán Peninsula and its continental shelf

The Yucatán Platform or Yucatán Shelf is a geologic or physiographic province, and a continental and carbonate platform, in the Maya Block of the southernmost portion of the North American Plate. It comprises the Yucatán Peninsula and its continental shelf, located between the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preceramic period in Belize</span> Historical period in Belize, to 2000 BC

The Preceramic period of Belizean and Mesoamerican history began with the arrival of the first Palaeoindians during 20000 BC – 11000 BC, and ended with the Maya development of ceramics during 2000 BC – 900 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Preclassic period in Belize</span> Historical period in Belize, 2000 BC – AD 250

The Preclassic or Formative period of Belizean, Maya, and Mesoamerican history began with the Maya development of ceramics during 2000 BC – 900 BC, and ended with the advent of Mayan monumental inscriptions in AD 250.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Classic period in Belize</span> Historical period in Belize, 250–900

The Classic period of Belizean, Maya, and Mesoamerican history began with the advent of Mayan monumental inscriptions in AD 250, and ended with the decline of these inscriptions during the Classic Maya Collapse in AD 900.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Periodisation of the history of Belize</span>

The periodisation of the history of Belize is the division of Belizean, Maya, and Mesoamerican history into named blocks of time, spanning the arrival of Palaeoindians to the present time. The pre-Columbian era is most often periodised by Mayanists, who often employ four or five periods to discuss history prior to the arrival of Spaniards. The Columbian era is most often periodised by historians, and less often by Mayanists, who often employ at least four periods to discuss history up to the present time.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Maya Lowlands</span> Second-order subdivision of Mesoamerica

The Maya Lowlands are the largest cultural and geographic, first order subdivision of the Maya Region, located in eastern Mesoamerica.

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