The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is a Kingston,Jamaica-based intergovernmental body of 167 member states and the European Union established under the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its 1994 Agreement on Implementation. The ISA's dual mission is to authorize and control development of mineral related operations in the international seabed considered the "common heritage of all mankind" and also protect the ecosystem of the seabed,ocean floor and subsoil in "The Area" beyond national jurisdiction. The ISA is to safeguard the international deep sea,the waters below 200 meters or 656 feet,where photosynthesis is hampered by inadequate light. Governing approximately half of the total area of the world's oceans,the ISA is to exercise oversight of activities that might threaten biological diversity and harm the marine environment. The Authority operates as an autonomous international organization with its own Assembly,Council and Secretariat.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty,is an international agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. As of May 2023,168 countries and the European Union are parties.
Polymetallic nodules,also called manganese nodules,are mineral concretions on the sea bottom formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides around a core. As nodules can be found in vast quantities,and contain valuable metals,deposits have been identified as a potential economic interest. Depending on their composition and autorial choice,they may also be called ferromanganese nodules. Ferromanganese nodules are mineral concretions composed of silicates and insoluble iron and manganese oxides that form on the ocean seafloor and terrestrial soils. The formation mechanism involves a series of redox oscillations driven by both abiotic and biotic processes. As a byproduct of pedogenesis,the specific composition of a ferromanganese nodule depends on the composition of the surrounding soil. The formation mechanisms and composition of the nodules allow for couplings with biogeochemical cycles beyond iron and manganese. The high relative abundance of nickel,copper,manganese,and other rare metals in nodules has increased interest in their use as a mining resource.
The seabed is the bottom of the ocean. All floors of the ocean are known as 'seabeds'.
Marine geology or geological oceanography is the study of the history and structure of the ocean floor. It involves geophysical,geochemical,sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal zone. Marine geology has strong ties to geophysics and to physical oceanography.
Satya N. Nandan,CF,CBE,was a diplomat and lawyer from Fiji specializing in ocean affairs,was Chairman of the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission,where he served a two-year term commencing 1 January 2009. Previously,he was the first Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority,a position he held for three consecutive four-year terms from March 1996 until December 2008.
Deep sea mining is the extraction of minerals from the ocean floor at depths of 200 metres (660 ft) to 6,500 metres (21,300 ft).
Bahrain and the United States have been allies since Bahrain's independence in 1971 and have maintained close relations with shared mutual interests across economic and geopolitical lines.
Nii Allotey Odunton,a mining engineer from Ghana,was the Secretary-General of the International Seabed Authority,serving consecutive four-year terms starting in 2009 and ending in 2017.
The United States was among the nations that participated in the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,which took place from 1974 through 1982 and resulted in the international treaty known as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The United States also participated in the subsequent negotiations of modifications to the treaty from 1990 to 1994. The UNCLOS came into force in 1994. Although the United States now recognizes the UNCLOS as a codification of customary international law,it has not ratified it.
Dolkun Isa is a Uyghur activist based in Germany,who has been designated as a terrorist by the Chinese Government since 2003. He is the 3rd and current president of the World Uyghur Congress,in office since 12 November 2017. He previously served as General Secretary and Chairman of the Executive Committee of the congress,respectively,and has spoken on behalf of the rights of the Uyghurs which make up the majority population in that region. He has also presented Uyghur human rights issues to the UN Human Rights Council,European Parliament,European governments and international human rights organizations.
Peter Thomson is a Fijian diplomat and the United Nations Secretary-General's Special Envoy for the Ocean,and President of the United Nations General Assembly from September 2016 until September 2017. He served as Fiji's Permanent Representative to the United Nations February 2010 to August 2017,with concurrent duties as Fiji's Ambassador to Cuba.
Jean-Pierre Lévy is a French lawyer,author and diplomat. He was the director of the United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea in 1985.
Nautilus Minerals Inc. was a Canadian deep sea exploration and mining company founded in 1997,and listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange between 2007 and 2019. The company was known for Solwara-1,the first deep sea mining project,an attempt to explore and mine a mineral deposit on the seabed off the coast of Papua New Guinea. By 2019,the company had faced bankruptcy and was delisted due to long-standing environmental concerns about the project and financial turmoil,resulting in its assets being owned by Deep Sea Mining Finance Limited.
The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) or Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone is an environmental management area of the Pacific Ocean,administered by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). It includes the Clarion Fracture Zone and the Clipperton Fracture Zone,geological submarine fracture zones. Clarion and Clipperton are two of the five major lineations of the northern Pacific floor,and were discovered by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1954. The CCZ is regularly considered for deep-sea mining due to the abundant presence of manganese nodules.
The Marine Policy of the Barack Obama administration comprises several significant environmental policy decisions for the oceans made during his two terms in office from 2009 to 2017. By executive action,US President Barack Obama increased fourfold the amount of protected marine space in waters under United States control,setting a major precedent for global ocean conservation. Using the U.S. president's authority under the Antiquities Act of 1906,he expanded to 200 nautical miles the seaward limits of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in Hawaiʻi and the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument around the U.S. island possessions in the Central Pacific. In the Atlantic,Obama created the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument,the first marine monument in the U.S. exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the Atlantic.
Deep Ocean Mission is an Indian initiative to undertake the deep ocean exploration focused on India's exclusive economic zones and continental shelf. The program will consist of various crewed and uncrewed submersibles exploring the sea bed. One of the primary aims of the mission is to explore and extract polymetallic nodules,which are composed of minerals like manganese,nickel,cobalt,copper and iron hydroxide. The metals can be used in the manufacturing of electronic devices,smartphones,batteries and solar panels.
Seabed mining,also known as Seafloor mining is the recovery of minerals from the seabed by techniques of underwater mining. The concept includes mining at shallow depths on the continental shelf and deep-sea mining at greater depths associated with tectonic activity,hydrothermal vents and the abyssal plains. The increased requirement for minerals and metals used in the technology sector has led to a renewed interest in the mining of seabed mineral resources,including massive polymetallic sulfide deposits around hydrothermal vents,cobalt-rich crusts on the sides of seamounts and fields of manganese nodules on the abyssal plains. While the seabed provides a high concentration of valuable minerals,there is an unknown risk of ecological damage on marine species because of a lack of data.
Vanessa Frazier is a Maltese diplomat currently serving as Permanent Representative of Malta to the United Nations.
On 25 June 2021,the president of Nauru,Lionel Aingimea,made a formal request to the president of the International Seabed Authority's (ISA) council to complete the adoption of rules,regulations and procedures necessary to facilitate the approval of plans of work for exploitation of deep-sea resources in the Area. This request is based on the "2-year rule",which is part of a provision from the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The provision can be found in section 1 of the annex,and it states that the ISA must complete the adoption of rules,regulations and procedures for the approval of the exploitation of deep-sea minerals within 2 years of the request. The ISA's current deadline for drafting new regulation is set in July 2023,although some claim that this is not a "hard" or "fixed" deadline. Due to the issue's complexity,negotiations have thus far failed to come to a concrete agreement. Even if it fails to set clear standards for deep-sea mining activities,the ISA must consider applications for exploitation in waters outside national jurisdictions and provisionally approve contracts after July 2023. Many experts fear that deep-sea mining activities that are not adequately regulated could significantly impact the marine environment,the economies of many nations and the livelihoods of indigenous groups who depend on the oceans for survival.
