Milk fever

Last updated
Typical milk fever posture; cow in sternal recumbency with its head tucked into its flank. Touma veleye tiesse coistrece.jpg
Typical milk fever posture; cow in sternal recumbency with its head tucked into its flank.

Milk fever, postparturient hypocalcemia, or parturient paresis is a disease, primarily in dairy cattle [1] but also seen in beef cattle and non-bovine domesticated animals, [2] characterized by reduced blood calcium levels (hypocalcemia). It occurs following parturition (birth), at onset of lactation, when demand for calcium for colostrum and milk production exceeds the body's ability to mobilize calcium. [3] "Fever" is a misnomer, as the disease generally does not cause elevated body temperature. Milk fever is more commonly seen in older animals (which have reduced ability to mobilize calcium from bone) and in certain breeds (such as Channel Island breeds). [4]

Contents

Clinical signs

Cow lying in sternal recumbency (with sternum in contact with the ground) Touma veleye ledjir.jpg
Cow lying in sternal recumbency (with sternum in contact with the ground)

The clinical signs of milk fever can be divided into three distinct stages:

Stage 1

In this stage, cows are mobile but show signs of hypersensitivity and excitability such as restlessness, [5] tremors, ear twitching, head bobbing, and mild ataxia. [6] If not treated, symptoms usually progress to stage 2. [7]

Stage 2

In this stage, cows can no longer stand and present in sternal recumbency. [6] Tachycardia, weakened heart contraction and peripheral pulses are observed. Cows appear dull, have dry muzzles, cold extremities, and their body temperature drops. Smooth muscle paralysis can cause bloat, and the inability to urinate or defecate. Cows often tuck their heads into their flanks. [7]

Cow lying on its side (lateral recumbency) Touma veleyes estade3.JPG
Cow lying on its side (lateral recumbency)

Stage 3

In this stage, lateral recumbency, [8] muscle flaccidity, [5] unresponsiveness to stimuli, and loss of consciousness progressing to coma are observed. Heart rate can approach 120 bpm, with peripheral pulses becoming undetectable. If untreated, progression will continue to death. [7]

Cause

During the dry period (late gestation, non-lactating), dairy cattle have relatively low calcium requirements, with a need to replace approximately 30 g of calcium per day due to utilization for fetal growth and fecal and urinary losses. At birth, the requirement for calcium is greatly increased due to initiation of lactation, when mammary drainage of calcium may exceed 50 g per day. [4] Due to this large increase in demand for calcium, most cows will experience some degree of hypocalcemia for a short period following birth as the metabolism adjusts to the increased demand. When the mammary drain of plasma calcium causes hypocalcemia severe enough to compromise neuromuscular function, the cow is considered to have clinical milk fever. [3]

Mechanism

In normal calcium regulation, a decrease in plasma calcium levels causes the parathyroid glands to secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates the activation of vitamin D3 in the kidney. These two compounds act to increase blood calcium levels by increasing absorption of dietary calcium from the intestine, increasing renal tubular reabsorption of calcium in the kidney, and increasing resorption of calcium from bones. [4]

It has been found that tissue is less responsive to PTH prepartum, compared to postpartum. It is believed that hypocalcemia causing milk fever is due to a lower level of responsiveness of the cow's tissues to circulating parathyroid hormone. [3]

The resultant decreased plasma calcium causes hyperexcitability of the nervous system and weakened muscle contractions, which result in both tetany and paresis. [7]

Prevention

Diet

Proper dietary management will prevent most cases of milk fever. This generally involves close attention to mineral and fiber levels in the diet prior to calving, as well as improving cow comfort to eliminate other problems that may interfere with appetite (and so trigger hypocalcemia). General advice is to restrict calcium intake before calving, as this leads to the parathyroid gland stimulating the release of calcium from bones. [9]

Calcium salts

A synthetic analogue of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol can be given by injection in the days leading up to calving, although the timing of this prophylaxis makes it difficult to use. [9]

Oral administration of a dose of a calcium salt in a gel has been advised by some veterinarians. [10] An orally administered bolus containing a much higher concentration of calcium than the injectable solutions can also be given so long as the cow is standing or sitting up. If the cow is lying 'flat out' then immediate intravenous therapy is required to avoid death.

Treatment

Urination and defecation commonly occurring during calcium treatment Touma veleyes flataedje pixhaedje.JPG
Urination and defecation commonly occurring during calcium treatment

Treatment generally involves calcium injection by intravenous, intramuscular or subcutaneous routes. Before calcium injection was employed, treatment comprised inflation of the udder using a pneumatic pump. Inflation of the udder worked because the increased pressure created in the udder pushed the calcium in the udder back into the bloodstream of the cow. [11]

Intravenous calcium, though indicated in many cases, is potentially fatal through "heart blockade", or transient high calcium levels stopping the heart, so should be administered with care. Cows are to be fed jaggery along with the lime water mixture. In unclear cases of downer cows, intravenous calcium injection can lead to diagnosis. The typical reaction will be a generalized tremor of the skeletal muscles, and sometimes cardiac arrhythmia. Defecation, urination and eructation are frequent during the treatment, due to pharmacological effect of calcium on the smooth muscles.

Prognosis

The prognosis is generally good, even in advanced cases. However, some cows can relapse the following day, [11] and even a third time the day after. [12] Without treatment, between 60% and 80% of cows usually die, [13] [14] although death rates as high as 90% have been recorded. [5]

History

It is thought that milk fever has existed for a very long time in dairy cattle. [15] The first reports in veterinary literature can be traced to around 1793. [13]

Early theories

Early treatments involved venesection, but this proved ineffective. [9]

Potassium iodide

In the late 1800s, Jurgens Schmidt proposed the use of an infused solution of potassium iodide for treatment. [15] A follow-up study of this treatment by Danish veterinarians showed that 90% of cows recovered after use of the treatment, [15] compared with only 20-40% survival without. [13] [14] A study in Iowa showed that 76.5% of cows recovered after use of the treatment. [15] However, the premise of the Schmidt treatment was misleading, as later veterinarians used water alone to the same success rate. [13]

Udder inflation

In 1901, Anderson and Evers trialled a treatment of udder inflation with air, which reduced mortality rates to just 1%. [13] [16] although with the added complication of mastitis. [16] Although this was an effective treatment (and is still used as a backup today), [11] it was not understood at the time why it worked, and remains the source of some debate. Some scientists believed that udder inflation could cause stimulation that then prevents calcium loss. [17] Other scientists suggested that udder inflation prevented milk secretion, reducing calcium loss overall. [18] [19] This may prevent calcium being taken from the blood plasma. [18]

Later theories

The true cause of milk fever was first suggested by Prof John Russell Greig and Henry Dryerre in March 1925, [13] at the Moredun Research Institute in Scotland. [20] This idea was later confirmed experimentally by Little and Wright in May 1925. [13] By 1933, Pulles began treatments with magnesium chloride and calcium chloride, which is the basis for modern pharmaceutical treatments. [9]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casein</span> Family of proteins found in milk

Casein is a family of related phosphoproteins that are commonly found in mammalian milk, comprising about 80% of the proteins in cow's milk and between 20% and 60% of the proteins in human milk. Sheep and cow milk have a higher casein content than other types of milk with human milk having a particularly low casein content.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy farming</span> Long-term production of milk

Dairy farming is a class of agriculture for the long-term production of milk, which is processed for the eventual sale of a dairy product. Dairy farming has a history that goes back to the early Neolithic era, around the seventh millennium BC, in many regions of Europe and Africa. Before the 20th century, milking was done by hand on small farms. Beginning in the early 20th century, milking was done in large scale dairy farms with innovations including rotary parlors, the milking pipeline, and automatic milking systems that were commercially developed in the early 1990s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypocalcemia</span> Low calcium levels in ones blood serum

Hypocalcemia is a medical condition characterized by low calcium levels in the blood serum. The normal range of blood calcium is typically between 2.1–2.6 mmol/L, while levels less than 2.1 mmol/L are defined as hypocalcemic. Mildly low levels that develop slowly often have no symptoms. Otherwise symptoms may include numbness, muscle spasms, seizures, confusion, or in extreme cases cardiac arrest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dairy cattle</span> Cattle bred to produce milk

Dairy cattle are cattle bred with the ability to produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made. Dairy cattle generally are of the species Bos taurus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Automatic milking</span> Milking of dairy animals without human labour

Automatic milking is the milking of dairy animals, especially of dairy cattle, without human labour. Automatic milking systems (AMS), also called voluntary milking systems (VMS), were developed in the late 20th century. They have been commercially available since the early 1990s. The core of such systems that allows complete automation of the milking process is a type of agricultural robot. Automated milking is therefore also called robotic milking. Common systems rely on the use of computers and special herd management software. They can also be used to monitor the health status of cows.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States raw milk debate</span>

The United States raw milk debate concerns issues of food safety and claimed health benefits of raw milk, and whether authorities responsible for regulating food safety should prohibit sale of raw milk for consumption.

Κ-casein, or kappa casein, is a mammalian milk protein involved in several important physiological processes. Chymosin splits K-casein into an insoluble peptide and water-soluble glycomacropeptide (GMP). GMP is responsible for an increased efficiency of digestion, prevention of neonate hypersensitivity to ingested proteins, and inhibition of gastric pathogens. The human gene for κ-casein is CSN3.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fat content of milk</span> Butterfat proportion of milk, by weight

The fat content of milk is the proportion of milk, by weight, made up by butterfat. The fat content, particularly of cow's milk, is modified to make a variety of products. The fat content of milk is usually stated on the container, and the color of the label or milk bottle top varied to enable quick recognition.

Charles Roy Henderson was an American statistician and a pioneer in animal breeding — the application of quantitative methods for the genetic evaluation of domestic livestock. This is critically important because it allows farmers and geneticists to predict whether a crop or animal will have a desired trait, and to what extent the trait will be expressed. He developed mixed model equations to obtain best linear unbiased predictions of breeding values and, in general, any random effect. He invented three methods for the estimation of variance components in unbalanced settings of mixed models, and invented a method for constructing the inverse of Wright's numerator relationship matrix based on a simple list of pedigree information. He, with his Ph.D. student Shayle R. Searle, greatly extended the use of matrix notation in statistics. His methods are widely used by the domestic livestock industry throughout the world and are a cornerstone of linear model theory.

<i>Streptococcus canis</i> Species of bacterium

Streptococcus canis is a group G beta-hemolytic species of Streptococcus. It was first isolated in dogs, giving the bacterium its name. These bacteria are characteristically different from Streptococcus dysgalactiae, which is a human-specific group G species that has a different phenotypic chemical composition. S. canis is important to the skin and mucosal health of cats and dogs, but under certain circumstances, these bacteria can cause opportunistic infections. These infections were known to afflict dogs and cats prior to the formal description of the species in Devriese et al., 1986. However, additional studies revealed cases of infection in other mammal species, including cattle and even humans. Instances of mortality from S. canis in humans are very low with only a few reported cases, while actual instances of infection may be underreported due to mischaracterizations of the bacteria as S. dysgalactiae. This species, in general, is highly susceptible to antibiotics, and plans to develop a vaccine to prevent human infections are currently being considered.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cannulated cow</span> Cow surgically fitted with a cannula

A cannulated cow or fistulated cow refers to a cow that has been surgically fitted with a cannula. A cannula acts as a porthole-like device that allows access to the rumen of a cow, to perform research and analysis of the digestive system and to allow veterinarians to transplant rumen contents from one cow to another.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Latxa</span> Breed of sheep

The Latxa is a breed of domestic sheep native to the Basque Country of Spain. Mostly contained within the provinces of Biscay, Gipuzkoa and Navarre, Latxa are dairy sheep whose unpasteurized milk is used to produce Idiazábal and Roncal cheeses. There are two sub-types of the breed, a dark-faced and a blonde.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mastitis in dairy cattle</span>

Bovine mastitis is the persistent, inflammatory reaction of the udder tissue due to physical trauma or microorganisms infections. Mastitis, a potentially fatal mammary gland infection, is the most common disease in dairy cattle in the United States and worldwide. It is also the most costly disease to the dairy industry. Milk from cows suffering from mastitis has an increased somatic cell count. Prevention and control of mastitis requires consistency in sanitizing the cow barn facilities, proper milking procedure and segregation of infected animals. Treatment of the disease is carried out by penicillin injection in combination with sulphar drug.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cattle</span> Large, domesticated, cloven-hooved herbivores

Cattle are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are called cows and mature male cattle are bulls. Young female cattle are called heifers, young male cattle are oxen or bullocks, and castrated male cattle are known as steers.

Butyrophilins are membrane proteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily (Ig). Butyrophilin (Btn) genes constitute a subgroup of at least 10 genes in the Ig superfamily identified in human, mouse, cow, goat and other species.

Aggression in cattle is usually a result of fear, learning, and hormonal state, however, many other factors can contribute to aggressive behaviors in cattle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Displaced abomasum</span>

Displaced abomasum in cattle occurs when the abomasum, also known as the true stomach, which typically resides on the floor of the abdomen, fills with gas and rises to the top of the abdomen, where it is said to be ‘displaced’. When the abomasum moves from its normal position it prevents the natural passage of gas and feed through the digestive system, creating a restriction. As cattle are ruminants, which have a 4 chambered stomach composed of a rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. Ruminants require this specialized digestive system in order to properly process and break down their high fiber and cellulose rich diets. As this type of digestive system is quite complex it is at a greater risk for incidence. Due to the natural anatomy of cattle it is more common to have the abomasum displace to the left, known as a left-displaced abomasum, than to the right, right-displaced abomasum. When the abomasum becomes displaced there also becomes a chance of an abomasal volvulus, twist, developing. An abomasal volvulus occurs when the abomasum, which is already out of place, will rotate and cut off blood and nutrient supply to the abomasum. Cattle which develop an abomasal twist require immediate vet attention to regain blood supply and food passage through the digestive system or the abomasum will begin to shut down due to lack of blood supply and toxicity development.

Laura Hernandez is an American associate professor of dairy science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison who studies endocrinology and lactation, especially that of dairy cows. Hernandez aims to apply the findings from the ungulates to humans having issues with breastfeeding.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dry cow</span>

A dry cow refers to a dairy cow that is in a stage of their lactation cycle where milk production ceases prior to calving. This part of their lactation cycle is referred to as the cows dry period and typically last between 40 and 65 days. Dry cows are typically divided into two groups: far-off and close-up. Once the cow has entered this stage, producers will seal the cows teat while following a veterinarian recommended, dry cow therapy for their herd. This dry period is a critical part of their lactation cycle and is important for the cows health, the newborn calf and future milk production, as it allows the cow time to rest, eat and prepare for birth. During this time, the cow will produce colostrum for the newly born calf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milk borne diseases</span> Milk born diseases

Milk borne diseases are any diseases caused by consumption of milk or dairy products infected or contaminated by pathogens. Milk borne diseases are one of the recurrent foodborne illnesses—between 1993 and 2012 over 120 outbreaks related to raw milk were recorded in the US with approximately 1,900 illnesses and 140 hospitalisations. With rich nutrients essential for growth and development such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and vitamins in milk, pathogenic microorganisms are well nourished and are capable of rapid cell division and extensive population growth in this favourable environment. Common pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites and among them, bacterial infection is the leading cause of milk borne diseases.

References

  1. "Parturient Paresis in Cows - Metabolic Disorders". Veterinary Manual. Retrieved 2020-10-10.
  2. "Parturient Paresis in Sheep and Goats - Metabolic Disorders". Veterinary Manual. Retrieved 2020-10-10.
  3. 1 2 3 Horst, RL; Goff, JP; Reinhardt, TA; Buxton, DR (July 1997). "Strategies for preventing milk fever in dairy cattle". Journal of Dairy Science. 80 (7): 1269–80. doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(97)76056-9 . PMID   9241589.
  4. 1 2 3 DeGaris, Peter J.; Lean, Ian J. (2008-04-01). "Milk fever in dairy cows: A review of pathophysiology and control principles". The Veterinary Journal. Special Issue: Production Diseases of the Transition Cow. 176 (1): 58–69. doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.12.029. PMID   18329301.
  5. 1 2 3 "Parturient paresis | animal disease". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  6. 1 2 "Parturient Paresis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2020-10-11.
  7. 1 2 3 4 "Parturient Paresis in Cows: Disorders of Calcium Metabolism: Merck Veterinary Manual". www.merckvetmanual.com. Retrieved 2015-11-06.
  8. Oetzel, G. R. (July 1988). "Parturient paresis and hypocalcemia in ruminant livestock". The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Food Animal Practice. 4 (2): 351–364. doi:10.1016/s0749-0720(15)31053-7. ISSN   0749-0720. PMID   3264754.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Murray, R. D.; Horsfield, J. E.; McCormick, W. D.; Williams, H. J.; Ward, D. (2008-11-08). "Historical and current perspectives on the treatment, control and pathogenesis of milk fever in dairy cattle". Veterinary Record. 163 (19): 561–565. doi:10.1136/vr.163.19.561. ISSN   0042-4900. PMID   18997185. S2CID   23593159.
  10. Haalstra, RT (1 June 1973). "[A veterinary approach to the relationship between the diet and milk fever on farms]". Tijdschrift voor Diergeneeskunde (in Dutch). 98 (11): 529–37. PMID   4736359.
  11. 1 2 3 Niedermeier, R.P.; Smith, Vearl R. (1950), "The effect of udder inflation upon blood levels of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus in cows with parturient paresis", Journal of Dairy Science, 33: 38–42, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(50)91862-5
  12. Lucien Mahin (1977–2008), Observations on diseases of cattle in Morocco (unpublished data)
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hibbs, J.W. (October 1950). "Milk Fever (Parturient Paresis) in Dairy Cows—A Review". Journal of Dairy Science. 33 (10): 758–789. doi: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(50)91966-7 . ISSN   0022-0302.
  14. 1 2 Horst, R.L.; Goff, J.P.; Reinhardt, T.A.; Buxton, D.R. (July 1997). "Strategies for Preventing Milk Fever in Dairy Cattle". Journal of Dairy Science. 80 (7): 1269–1280. doi: 10.3168/jds.s0022-0302(97)76056-9 . ISSN   0022-0302. PMID   9241589.
  15. 1 2 3 4 Repp, John J. (1901-01-01). "The Schmidt treatment for parturient paralysis". Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics. 14: 313–321. doi:10.1016/S0368-1742(01)80063-1. ISSN   0368-1742. S2CID   84618576.
  16. 1 2 Goings, Richard Lewis (1973). Efficacy of a prepartum, calcium-deficient diet in prevention of bovine parturient paresis (Thesis). Iowa State University. doi: 10.31274/rtd-180813-2830 .
  17. Dryerre, Henry; Greig, J. Russell (July 1985). "Milk Fever: Its Possible Association with Derangements in the Internal Secretions". The Canadian Veterinary Journal. 26 (7): 224–227. ISSN   0008-5286. PMC   1680093 . PMID   17422555.
  18. 1 2 Petersen, W. E.; Rigor, T. V. (1932-11-01). "Relation of Pressure to Rate and Quality of Milk Secreted". Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. 30 (2): 254–256. doi:10.3181/00379727-30-6444. ISSN   0037-9727. S2CID   88312791.
  19. Garrison, E. R. ; Turner, C. W. (1936). "CAB Direct". www.cabdirect.org. Retrieved 2020-10-10.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. "Phone call reveals links to Moredun's past". Moredun Magazine. No. 6. 2013. p. 1. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016.