Mnemonist

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The title mnemonist refers to an individual with the ability to remember and recall unusually long lists of data, such as unfamiliar names, lists of numbers, entries in books, etc. Some mnemonists also memorize texts such as long poems, speeches, or even entire books of fiction or non-fiction. The term is derived from the term mnemonic, which refers to a strategy to support remembering (such as the method of loci or major system), but not all mnemonists report using mnemonics. Mnemonists may have superior innate ability to recall or remember, [1] in addition to (or instead of) relying on techniques.

Contents

Structure of mnemonic skills

While the innateness of mnemonists' skills is debated, the methods that mnemonists use to memorize are well-documented. Many mnemonists have been studied in psychology labs over the last century, and most have been found to use mnemonic devices. Currently, all memory champions at the World Memory Championships have said that they use mnemonic strategies, such as the method of loci, to perform their memory feats.

Skilled memory theory was proposed by K. Anders Ericsson and Bill Chase to explain the effectiveness of mnemonic devices in memory expertise. Generally, short-term memory has a capacity of seven items; [2] however, in order to memorize long strings of unrelated information, this constraint must be overcome. Skilled memory theory involves three steps: meaningful encoding, retrieval structure, and speed-up. [3]

Encoding

In encoding, information is encoded in terms of knowledge structures through meaningful associations. This may initially involve breaking down long lists into more manageable chunks that fall within the capacity of short term memory. Verbal reports of memory experts show a consistent grouping of three or four. A digit sequence 1-9-4-5, for example, can then be remembered as "the year World War Two ended". Luria reported that Solomon Shereshevsky used synesthesia to associate numbers and words as visual images or colors to encode the information presented to him, but Luria did not clearly distinguish between synesthesia and mnemonic techniques like the method of loci and number shapes. [4] [5] Other subjects studied have used previous knowledge such as racing times or historical information [6] to encode new information. This is supported by studies that have shown that previous knowledge about a subject will increase one's ability to remember it. Chess experts, for example, can memorize more pieces of a chess game in progress than a novice chess player. [3] However, while there is some correlation between memory expertise and general intelligence, as measured by either IQ or the general intelligence factor, the two are by no means identical. Many memory experts have been shown to be average to above-average by these two measures, but not exceptional. [7]

Retrieval

The next step is to create a retrieval structure by which the associations can be recalled. It serves the function of storing retrieval cues without having to use short term memory. It is used to preserve the order of items to be remembered. Verbal reports of memory experts show two prominent methods of retrieving information: hierarchical nodes and the method of loci. Retrieval structures are hierarchically organized and can be thought of as nodes that are activated when information is retrieved. Verbal reports have shown that memory experts have different retrieval structures. One expert clustered digits into groups, groups into supergroups, and supergroups into clusters of supergroups. However, by far the most common method of retrieval structure is the method of loci. [8]

Method of loci

The method of loci is "the use of an orderly arrangement of locations into which one could place the images of things or people that are to be remembered." [9] The encoding process happens in three steps. First, an architectural area, such as the houses on a street, must be memorized. Second, each item to be remembered must be associated with a separate image. Finally, this set of images can be distributed in a "locus", or place within the architectural area in a pre-determined order. Then, as one tries to recall the information, the mnemonists simply has to "walk" down the street, see each symbol, and recall the associated information. An example of mnemonists who used this method is Solomon Shereshevsky; he would use Gorky Street, his own street. When he read, each word would form a graphic image. He would then place this image in a place along the street; later, when he needed to recall the information, he would simply "stroll" down the street again to recall the necessary information. [5] Neuroimaging studies have shown results that support the method of loci as the retrieval method in world-class memory performers. An fMRI recorded brain activity in memory experts and a control group as they were memorizing selected data. Previous studies have shown that teaching a control group the method of loci leads to changes in brain activation during memorization. Consistent with their use of the method of loci, memory experts had higher activity in the medial parietal cortex, retrospenial cortex, and right posterior hippocampus; these brain areas have been linked to spatial memory and navigation. These differences were observable even when the memory experts were trying to memorize stimuli, such as snowflakes, where they showed no superior ability to the control group. [10]

Acceleration

The final step in skilled memory theory is acceleration. With practice, time necessary for encoding and retrieval operations can be dramatically reduced. As a result, storage of information can then be performed within a few seconds. Indeed, one confounding factor in the study of memory is that the subjects often improve from day-to-day as they are tested over and over.

Learned skill or innate ability

The innateness of expert performance in the memory field has been studied thoroughly by many scientists; it is a matter which has still not been definitively resolved.

Evidence for memory expertise as a learned skill

Much evidence exists which points towards memory expertise as a learned skill which can only be learned through hours of deliberate practice. Anecdotally, the performers in top memory competitions like the World Memory Championships and the Extreme Memory Tournament all deny any ability of a photographic memory; rather, these experts have averaged 10 years practicing their encoding strategies. [8] Another piece of evidence which points away from an innate superiority of memory is the specificity of memory expertise in memorists. For example, though memory experts have an exceptional ability to remember digits, their ability to remember unrelated items which are more difficult to encode, such as symbols or snowflakes, is the same as that of an average person. The same holds true for memory experts in other fields: studies of mental calculators and chess experts show the same specificity for superior memory. [3] [8] [10] In some cases, other types of memory, such as visual memory for faces, may even be impaired. [11] Another piece of evidence of memory expertise as a learned ability is the fact that dedicated individuals can make exceptional memory gains when exposed to mnemonics and given a chance to practice. One subject, SF, a college student of average intelligence, was able to attain world-class memory performance after hundreds of hours of practice over two years. His memory, in fact, improved over 70 standard deviations, while his digit span, or memory span for digits, grew to 80 digits, which was higher than the digit span for all memory experts previously recorded. [3] Similarly, adults of average intelligence taught encoding strategies also show large gains in memory performance. Finally, neuroimaging studies performed on memory experts and compared to a control group have found no systematic anatomical differences in the brain between memory experts and a control group. [10] While it is true that there are activation differences between the brains of memory experts and a control group, they are due to the use of spatial techniques to form retrieval structures, not any structural differences.

Evidence for memory expertise as an innate ability

Much of the evidence for innate superiority of memory is anecdotal and is therefore rejected by scientists who have moved toward accepting only reproducible studies as evidence for elite performance. There have been exceptions, however, that do not fit skilled memory theory as proposed by Chase and Ericsson. Synesthetes, for example, show a memory advantage for material that induces their synesthesia over a control group. This advantage tends to be in retention of new information rather than learning. However, synesthetes are likely to have some brain differences which give them an innate advantage when it comes to memory. [12] Another group which may have some innate memory advantage are autistic savants. Unfortunately, many savants who have performed memory feats, such as Kim Peek and Daniel Tammet, have not been rigorously studied; they do claim not to need to use encoding strategies. A recent imaging study of savants found that there are activation differences between savants and typically developing individuals; these cannot be explained by the method of loci as mnemonic savants do not tend to use encoding strategies for their memory. Savants activated the right inferior occipital areas of their brain, whereas control participants activated the left parietal region which is generally associated with attentional processes. [13]

Famous mnemonists

Memory sport contains a more comprehensive list of well-known memory athletes. The complete, up-to-date memory world rankings can be found at the International Association of Memory website. [19]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mnemonic</span> Learning technique that aids remembering

A mnemonic device or memory device is any learning technique that aids information retention or retrieval (remembering) in the human memory for better understanding.

The major system is a mnemonic technique used to help in memorizing numbers.

The Dominic system is a mnemonic system used to remember sequences of digits similar to the mnemonic major system. It was invented and used in competition by eight-time World Memory Champion Dominic O'Brien.

Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall. Psychologists test these forms of recall as a way to study the memory processes of humans and animals. Two main theories of the process of recall are the two-stage theory and the theory of encoding specificity.

Memorization is the process of committing something to memory. It is a mental process undertaken in order to store in memory for later recall visual, auditory, or tactical information.

Piphilology comprises the creation and use of mnemonic techniques to remember many digits of the mathematical constant π. The word is a play on the word "pi" itself and of the linguistic field of philology.

In cognitive psychology, chunking is a process by which small individual pieces of a set of information are bound together to create a meaningful whole later on in memory. The chunks, by which the information is grouped, are meant to improve short-term retention of the material, thus bypassing the limited capacity of working memory and allowing the working memory to be more efficient. A chunk is a collection of basic units that are strongly associated with one another, and have been grouped together and stored in a person's memory. These chunks can be retrieved easily due to their coherent grouping. It is believed that individuals create higher-order cognitive representations of the items within the chunk. The items are more easily remembered as a group than as the individual items themselves. These chunks can be highly subjective because they rely on an individual's perceptions and past experiences, which are linked to the information set. The size of the chunks generally ranges from two to six items but often differs based on language and culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Method of loci</span> Memory techniques adopted in ancient Roman and Greek rhetorical treatises

The method of loci is a strategy for memory enhancement, which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information. The method of loci is also known as the memory journey, memory palace, journey method, memory spaces, or mind palace technique. This method is a mnemonic device adopted in ancient Roman and Greek rhetorical treatises. Many memory contest champions report using this technique to recall faces, digits, and lists of words.

"Funes the Memorious" is a fantasy short story by Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges (1899–1986). First published in La Nación of June 1942, it appeared in the 1944 anthology Ficciones, part two (Artifices). The first English translation appeared in 1954 in Avon Modern Writing No. 2.

Solomon Veniaminovich Shereshevsky, also known simply as 'Ш' ('Sh'), 'S.', or Luria's S, was a Soviet journalist and mnemonist active in the 1920s. He was the subject of Alexander Luria's case study The Mind of a Mnemonist (1968).

Hyperthymesia, also known as hyperthymestic syndrome or highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM), is a condition that leads people to be able to remember an abnormally large number of their life experiences in vivid detail. It is extraordinarily rare, with only 62 people in the world having been diagnosed with the condition as of 2021. One who has hyperthymesia is called a hyperthymesiac.

Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory. Working memory stores information for immediate use or manipulation, which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.

Metamemory or Socratic awareness, a type of metacognition, is both the introspective knowledge of one's own memory capabilities and the processes involved in memory self-monitoring. This self-awareness of memory has important implications for how people learn and use memories. When studying, for example, students make judgments of whether they have successfully learned the assigned material and use these decisions, known as "judgments of learning", to allocate study time.

Musical memory refers to the ability to remember music-related information, such as melodic content and other progressions of tones or pitches. The differences found between linguistic memory and musical memory have led researchers to theorize that musical memory is encoded differently from language and may constitute an independent part of the phonological loop. The use of this term is problematic, however, since it implies input from a verbal system, whereas music is in principle nonverbal.

Exceptional memory is the ability to have accurate and detailed recall in a variety of ways, including hyperthymesia, eidetic memory, synesthesia, and emotional memory. Exceptional memory is also prevalent in those with savant syndrome and mnemonists.

Eidetic memory is the ability to recall an image from memory with high precision—at least for a brief period of time—after seeing it only once and without using a mnemonic device.

Memory sport, sometimes referred to as competitive memory or the mind sport of memory, refers to competitions in which participants attempt to memorize then recall different forms of information, under certain guidelines. The sport has been formally developed since 1991 and features national and international championships. The primary worldwide organizational bodies are the IAM and WMSC.

<i>Moonwalking with Einstein</i> Book by Joshua Foer

Moonwalking with Einstein: The Art and Science of Remembering Everything is a nonfiction book by Joshua Foer, first published in 2011. Moonwalking with Einstein debuted at no. 3 on the New York Times bestseller list and stayed on the list for 8 weeks.

Elaborative encoding is a mnemonic system which uses some form of elaboration, such as an emotional cue, to assist in the retention of memories and knowledge. In this system one attaches an additional piece of information to a memory task which makes it easier to recall. For instance, one may recognize a face easier if character traits are also imparted about the person at the same time.

References

  1. ↑ Gordon, Paul; Valentine, Elizabeth; Wilding, John (1984). "One man's memory: A study of a mnemonist". British Journal of Psychology. 75 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1984.tb02784.x. ISSN   2044-8295.
  2. ↑ Miller, G. A. (1956). "The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information". Psychological Review. 63 (2): 343–355. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.308.8071 . doi:10.1037/h0043158. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4646-B. PMID   13310704. S2CID   15654531.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Chase, W. G.; Ericsson, K. A. (1982). G. H. Bower (ed.). Skill and working memory. pp. 1–58. doi:10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60546-0. ISBN   978-0-12-543316-7.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ "Number Shape System". Memory Techniques Wiki. Retrieved May 19, 2016.
  5. 1 2 Luria, A. (1987). The Mind of a Mnemonist. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  6. ↑ Ericsson, K.; Delaney, P.; Weaver, G. (2004). "Uncovering the structure of a memorist's superior "basic" memory capacity" (PDF). Cognitive Psychology. 49 (3): 191–237. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.02.001. PMID   15342260. S2CID   14121645.
  7. ↑ Conway, A.R.A. (2003). "Working Memory Capacity and its relation to general intelligence". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 7 (12): 547–552. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.538.4967 . doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005. PMID   14643371. S2CID   9943197.
  8. 1 2 3 Ericsson K (2003). "Exceptional Memorizers: made, not born". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 7 (6): 233–235. doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(03)00103-7. PMID   12804685. S2CID   54297078.
  9. ↑ Bower, G. (1970). "Analysis of a Mnemonic Device" (PDF). American Scientist. 58 (5): 496–510. Bibcode:1970AmSci..58..496B. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-01-27. Retrieved 2020-08-12.
  10. 1 2 3 Maguire, E. (2003). "Routes to remembering: the brains behind superior memory". Nature Neuroscience. 6 (1): 90–95. doi:10.1038/nn988. PMID   12483214. S2CID   13921255.
  11. ↑ Raz A (2009). "A slice of pi: an exploratory neuroimaging study of digit encoding and retrieval in a superior memorist". Neurocase. 15 (5): 361–72. doi:10.1080/13554790902776896. PMC   4323087 . PMID   19585350.
  12. ↑ Yaro, C.; Ward, J. (2007). "Searching for Shereshevskii: What is superior about the memory of synaesthetes?". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 60 (5): 681–695. doi:10.1080/17470210600785208. PMID   17455076. S2CID   8874767.
  13. ↑ Neumann, N (2010). "The Mind of the Mnemonists: An MEG and Neuropsychological Study of Autistic Memory Savants". Behavioural Brain Research . 215 (1): 114–121. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.07.008. PMID   20637245. S2CID   35935065.
  14. ↑ "Official Statistics". Archived from the original on 2018-12-15. Retrieved 2018-12-12.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "World Memory Championships | World Memory Statistics". www.world-memory-statistics.com. Retrieved 2016-12-29.
  16. 1 2 "List of USA Memory Champions - Memory Techniques Wiki". 14 April 2023.
  17. ↑ "Most decks of playing cards memorized - single sighting | Guinness World Records". www.guinnessworldrecords.com. 2 April 2007. Retrieved 2016-12-29.
  18. ↑ Finkleman, R' Shimshon (1986). Reb Moshe. Mesorah Publications, Ltd. pp. 82–84.
  19. ↑ "World Ranking | International Association of Memory Statistics". www.iam-stats.org. Retrieved 2016-12-30.
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