Ninghai Army (1915–1926) renamed as 26th Division (National Revolutionary Army) | |
---|---|
Active | 1915–1926 1926–1931 |
Country | Republic of China |
Allegiance | Republic of China |
Branch | Independent unit then incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army |
Size | Division |
Garrison/HQ | Xining, Qinghai |
Equipment | rifles, swords, machine guns |
Engagements | Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai |
Commanders | |
Ceremonial chief | Ma Qi |
Notable commanders | Ma Qi, Ma Buqing, Ma Bufang |
Ninghai Army | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Traditional Chinese | 寧海軍 | ||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 宁海军 | ||||||||||||
|
The Ninghai Army,later the 26th Division (National Revolutionary Army) was a Muslim Hui army of the Republic of China commanded by General Ma Qi,who controlled the Xining area of Qinghai,then a special region of Gansu province. It was founded by Ma Qi in 1915.
The Ninghai Army was made up of Hui Muslims. [1] The name "Ninghai" was applied to the armies of the Republic of China around the region of Ningxia-Qinghai. [2]
Ma Qi led the Ninghai Army in November 1918 to seize and garrison Labrang monastery from the Tibetans. [3] It left in 1927. [4]
The Tibetan Golok people,owing allegiance to Labrang,attacked the Muslim Ninghai Army several times. The Chinese had never been able to control the Goloks before. However,this time,the Muslim Ninghai Army brought their modernized weapons,and exterminated a group of Goloks. The Muslim army then called for negotiations,during which they slaughtered the Goloks,killing "men,women and children",and drowned thousands of them in the Yellow River. A Christian missionary praised the Muslim army for exterminating the Goloks,saying that it was "God",who enabled the Muslim victory. After Tibetans attacked the Ninghai Muslim army in 1922 and 1923,the Ninghai army returned in 1924 and crushed the Tibetans,killing numerous Tibetans. [5]
At Ganjia and Serchentang,General Ma Bufang defeated Tibetans under Gonpo Dondrup on 27 June 1924 and 25–27 April 1925. The Tibetans suffered severe casualties. [6]
In 1925,a Tibetan rebellion broke out,with thousands of Tibetans driving out the Muslims. Ma Qi responded with 3,000 Chinese Muslim troops,who retook Labrang and machine gunned thousands of Tibetan monks as they tried to flee. [7] [8]
When Ma Qi joined the Kuomintang,the Ninghai army was reorganized into the National Revolutionary Army 26th Division,under Ma Qi's command.
Wei Fu-chih was born in Kao-lan district in Gansu in 1895,his alma mater was Paoting Military Officers' College,and among the positions he held was battalion commander in artillery corps of the Ninghai Army. [9] [10] [11]
List of people who served in the Ninghai Army
The Salar people are a Turkic ethnic minority of China who largely speak the Salar language,an Oghuz language. The Salar people numbered 130,607 people in the last census of 2010.
Amdo is one of the three traditional Tibetan regions,the others being U-Tsang in the west and Kham in the east. Ngari in the north-west was incorporated into Ü-Tsang. Amdo is also the birthplace of the 14th Dalai Lama. Amdo encompasses a large area from the Machu to the Drichu (Yangtze). Amdo is mostly coterminous with China's present-day Qinghai province,but also includes small portions of Sichuan and Gansu provinces.
The foreign relations of Tibet are documented from the 7th century onward,when Buddhism was introduced by missionaries from India and Nepal. The Tibetan Empire fought with the Tang dynasty for control over territory dozens of times,despite peace marriage twice. Tibet was conquered by the Mongol Empire and that changed its internal system of government,introducing the Dalai Lamas,as well as subjecting Tibet to political rule under the Yuan dynasty. Tibetan foreign relations during the Ming dynasty are opaque,with Tibet being either a tributary state or under full Chinese sovereignty. But by the 18th century,the Qing dynasty indisputably made Tibet a subject. In the early 20th century,after a successful invasion,Britain established a trading relationship with Tibet and was permitted limited diplomatic access to "Outer Tibet",basically Shigatse and Lhasa. Britain supported Tibetan autonomy under the 13th Dalai Lama but did not contest Chinese suzerainty;while "Inner Tibet",areas such as Amdo and Kham with mixed Chinese and Tibetan populations to the east and north,remained nominally under the control of the Republic of China although that control was seldom effective. Although the sovereignty of Tibet was unrecognized,Tibet was courted in unofficial visits from Nazi Germany,Imperial Japan,and the United States during and after World War II. The foreign relations of Tibet ended with the Seventeen Point Agreement that formalized Chinese sovereignty over most all of political Tibet in 1951.
Tibetan Muslims,also known as the Kachee,form a small minority in Tibet. Despite being Muslim,they are officially recognized as Tibetans by the government of the People's Republic of China,unlike the Hui Muslims,who are separately recognized. The Tibetan word Kachee literally means Kashmiri and Kashmir was known as Kachee Yul. The Muslim community in Tibet is very diverse,with Muslims being of Kashmiri,Tibetan,Nepalese,Ladakhi,and Indian ancestry.
Labrang Monastery is one of the six great monasteries of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. Its formal name is Genden Shédrup DargyéTrashi Gyésu khyilwéLing.
Xunhua Salar Autonomous County is a Salar autonomous county in the southeast of Haidong Prefecture of Qinghai Province,China,and the only autonomous Salar county in China. The autonomous county has an area of around 2,100 square kilometres (810 sq mi),and a population of approximately 161,600 inhabitants per a 2022 government publication. In the east it borders on the province of Gansu,in the south and the west to the Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture,its postal code is 811100 and its capital is the town of Jishi.
There were two Kazakh exoduses from Xinjiang,the first one occurred in the 1930s and 1940s as Kazakhs fled from the Soviet Union into Xinjiang,Gansu,Qinghai,Tibet and British India and the second one occurred in waves during the 1950s and 1960s after the victory of the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang.
The Ma clique or Ma family warlords is a collective name for a group of Hui warlords in Northwestern China who ruled the Chinese provinces of Qinghai,Gansu and Ningxia for 10 years from 1919 until 1928. Following the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1912,the region came under Chinese Muslim warlord Ma Qi's control until the Northern Expedition by the Republic of China consolidated central control in 1928. There were three families in the Ma clique,each of them respectively controlled 3 areas,Gansu,Qinghai,and Ningxia. The three most prominent members of the clique were Ma Bufang,Ma Hongkui,and Ma Hongbin,collectively known as the Xibei San Ma. Some contemporary accounts,such as Edgar Snow's,described the clique as the "Four Ma",adding Ma Bufang's brother Ma Buqing to the list of the top warlords. Other prominent Mas included Ma Anliang,Ma Qi,Ma Lin,Ma Hu-shan,and Ma Zhongying.
Ma Bufang (1903 –31 July 1975) (traditional Chinese:馬步芳;simplified Chinese:马步芳;pinyin:MǎBùfāng;Wade–Giles:Ma3 Pu4-fang1,Xiao'erjing:مَابُفَانْ) was a prominent Muslim Ma clique warlord in China during the Republic of China era,ruling the province of Qinghai. His rank was Lieutenant-general.
Ma Qi was a Chinese Muslim General in early 20th-century China.
The history of Islam in China dates back to 1,300 years ago. Currently,Chinese Muslims are a minority group in China,representing between 0.45% to 1.8% of the total population according to the latest estimates. Although Hui Muslims are the most numerous group,the greatest concentration of Chinese Muslims are located in Northwestern China,mostly in the autonomous region of Xinjiang,which holds a significant Uyghur population. Lesser but significant Chinese Muslim populations reside in the regions of Ningxia,Gansu,and Qinghai. Of China's 55 officially recognized minority peoples,ten groups are predominantly SunnīMuslim.
Kumbum Monastery,also called Ta'er Temple,is a Tibetan gompa in Lusar,Huangzhong County,Xining,Qinghai,China. It was founded in 1583 in a narrow valley close to the village of Lusar in the historical Tibetan region of Amdo. Its superior monastery is Drepung Monastery,immediately to the west of Lhasa. It is ranked in importance as second only to Lhasa.
Tibet was a de facto independent state between the collapse of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in 1912 and its annexation by the People's Republic of China in 1951.
The Golok or Ngolok peoples live in Golog Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture,Qinghai,China around the upper reaches of the Yellow River and the sacred mountain Amne Machin. The Golok were renowned in both Tibet and China as ferocious fighters free from Tibetan and Chinese control.
The Sino-Tibetan War was a war that began in 1930 when the Tibetan Army under the 13th Dalai Lama responded to the attempted seizure of a monastery. Chinese-administered eastern Kham region,and the Yushu region in Qinghai,over disputes regarding monasteries.
The Qinghai–Tibet War or the Tsinghai–Tibet War was a conflict that took place during the Sino-Tibetan War. A rebellion led by the Dalai Lama with British support wanted to expand the original conflict taking place between the Tibetan Army and Liu Wenhui in Xikang,to attack Qinghai,a region northeast of Tibet. Using a dispute over a monastery in Yushu in Qinghai as an excuse in 1932,the Tibetan army attacked. Qinghai Muslim General Ma Bufang overran the Tibetan armies and recaptured several counties in Xikang province. Shiqu,Dege and other counties were seized from the Tibetans. The war against the Tibetan army was led by the Muslim General Ma Biao. The Tibetans were pushed back to the other side of the Jinsha river. The Qinghai army recaptured counties that had been controlled by the Tibetan army since 1919. The victory on the part of the Qinghai army threatened the supply lines to Tibetan forces in Garze and Xinlong. As a result,this part of the Tibetan army was forced to withdraw. Ma and Liu warned Tibetan officials not to dare cross the Jinsha river again. By August the Tibetans lost so much territory to Liu Wenhui and Ma Bufang's forces that the Dalai Lama telegraphed the British government of India for assistance. British pressure led China to declare a cease-fire. Separate truces were signed by Ma and Liu with the Tibetans in 1933,ending the fighting. The British had backed up the Tibetans during the war. After their war the victory over the Tibetans was celebrated by Xikang and Qinghai soldiers.
The Muslim Conflict in Gansu broke out when a coalition of Muslim generals revolted against the Guominjun in 1927. Prominent among the rebels was Ma Tingxiang,the son of the General Ma Anliang,who received aid in the form of arms from Zhang Zuolin in Manchuria.
The Amdo- Ma clique conflicts (1917–1949) were a series of military campaigns against unconquered Amchok and Ngolok (Golok) tribal Tibetan areas of Qinghai (Amdo),undertaken by two Hui commanders,Gen. Ma Qi and Gen. Ma Bufang,on behalf of the Beiyang and Kuomintang governments of the Republic of China. The campaigns lasted between 1917 and 1949. The conflict was spurred by multiple factors,notably for economic and socio-political reasons rather than by any racial or religious enmity.
Nyoshül Khenpo Rinpoche (1932–1999),more fully Nyoshül Khenpo Jamyang Dorje,was a Tibetan lama born in the Derge region of Kham.
Ma Biao (1885–1948) was a Chinese Muslim Ma Clique General in the National Revolutionary Army,and served under Ma Bufang,the Governor of Qinghai. He was a member of Ma Bufang's family,Ma Biao was the eldest son of Ma Haiqing 馬海清,who was the sixth younger brother of Ma Haiyan,the grandfather of Ma Bufang.