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Autophagy is the natural, regulated mechanism of the cell that removes unnecessary or disfunctional components. It allows the orderly degradation and recycling of cellular components.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive chemical species containing oxygen. Examples include peroxides, superoxide, hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, and alpha-oxygen.
Myostatin is a myokine, a protein produced and released by myocytes that acts on muscle cells' autocrine function to inhibit myogenesis: muscle cell growth and differentiation. In humans it is encoded by the MSTN gene. Myostatin is a secreted growth differentiation factor that is a member of the TGF beta protein family.
Jun dimerization protein 2 (JUNDM2) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the JDP2 gene. The Jun dimerization protein is a member of the AP-1 family of transcription factors.
The miR-1 microRNA precursor is a small micro RNA that regulates its target protein's expression in the cell. microRNAs are transcribed as ~70 nucleotide precursors and subsequently processed by the Dicer enzyme to give products at ~22 nucleotides. In this case the mature sequence comes from the 3' arm of the precursor. The mature products are thought to have regulatory roles through complementarity to mRNA. In humans there are two distinct microRNAs that share an identical mature sequence, these are called miR-1-1 and miR-1-2.
Mitofusin-2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MFN2 gene. Mitofusins are GTPases embedded in the outer membrane of the mitochondria. In mammals MFN1 and MFN2 are essential for mitochondrial fusion. In addition to the mitofusins, OPA1 regulates inner mitochondrial membrane fusion, and DRP1 is responsible for mitochondrial fission.
Protein kinase C epsilon type (PKCε) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PRKCE gene. PKCε is an isoform of the large PKC family of protein kinases that play many roles in different tissues. In cardiac muscle cells, PKCε regulates muscle contraction through its actions at sarcomeric proteins, and PKCε modulates cardiac cell metabolism through its actions at mitochondria. PKCε is clinically significant in that it is a central player in cardioprotection against ischemic injury and in the development of cardiac hypertrophy.
Bcl-2-like 1 or BCL2L1 is a human gene. Through alternative splicing, it encodes both of the human proteins Bcl-xL and Bcl-xS.
N-cadherin, also known as Cadherin-2 (CDH2) or neural cadherin (NCAD) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CDH2 gene. CDH2 has also been designated as CD325. N-cadherin is a transmembrane protein expressed in multiple tissues and functions to mediate cell–cell adhesion. In cardiac muscle, N-cadherin is an integral component in adherens junctions residing at intercalated discs, which function to mechanically and electrically couple adjacent cardiomyocytes. While mutations in CDH2 have not thus far been associated with human disease, alterations in expression and integrity of N-cadherin protein has been observed in various forms of disease, including human dilated cardiomyopathy.
Transcription factor GATA-4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GATA4 gene.
BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa protein-interacting protein 3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BNIP3 gene.
BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa protein-interacting protein 3-like is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BNIP3L gene.
Endonuclease G, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the ENDOG gene. This protein primarily participates in caspase-independent apoptosis via DNA degradation when translocating from the mitochondrion to nucleus under oxidative stress. As a result, EndoG has been implicated in cancer, aging, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease (PD). Regulation of its expression levels thus holds potential to treat or ameliorate those conditions.
ADP/ATP translocase 4 (ANT4) is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A31 gene on chromosome 4. This enzyme inhibits apoptosis by catalyzing ADP/ATP exchange across the mitochondrial membranes and regulating membrane potential. In particular, ANT4 is essential to spermatogenesis, as it imports ATP into sperm mitochondria to support their development and survival. Outside this role, the SLC25AC31 gene has not been implicated in any human disease.
Voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the VDAC2 gene on chromosome 10. This protein is a voltage-dependent anion channel and shares high structural homology with the other VDAC isoforms. VDACs are generally involved in the regulation of cell metabolism, mitochondrial apoptosis, and spermatogenesis. Additionally, VDAC2 participates in cardiac contractions and pulmonary circulation, which implicate it in cardiopulmonary diseases. VDAC2 also mediates immune response to infectious bursal disease (IBD).
Voltage-dependent anion-selective channel protein 3 (VDAC3) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the VDAC3 gene on chromosome 8. The protein encoded by this gene is a voltage-dependent anion channel and shares high structural homology with the other VDAC isoforms. Nonetheless, VDAC3 demonstrates limited pore-forming ability and, instead, interacts with other proteins to perform its biological functions, including sperm flagella assembly and centriole assembly. Mutations in VDAC3 have been linked to male infertility, as well as Parkinson’s disease.
Mitophagy is the selective degradation of mitochondria by autophagy. It often occurs to defective mitochondria following damage or stress. The process of mitophagy was first described over a hundred years ago by Margaret Reed Lewis and Warren Harmon Lewis. Ashford and Porter used electron microscopy to observe mitochondrial fragments in liver lysosomes by 1962, and a 1977 report suggested that "mitochondria develop functional alterations which would activate autophagy." The term "mitophagy" was in use by 1998.
In molecular biology mir-210 microRNA is a short RNA molecule. MicroRNAs function to regulate the expression levels of other genes by several mechanisms.
ADP/ATP translocase 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SLC25A5 gene on the X chromosome.
The human ATG4D gene encodes the protein Autophagy related 4D, cysteine peptidase.
References
- 1 2 Zhang J, Ney PA (July 2009). "Role of BNIP3 and NIX in cell death, autophagy, and mitophagy". Cell Death and Differentiation. 16 (7): 939–46. doi:10.1038/cdd.2009.16. PMC 2768230 . PMID 19229244.
- ↑ Mizushima N, Levine B (September 2010). "Autophagy in mammalian development and differentiation". Nature Cell Biology. 12 (9): 823–30. doi:10.1038/ncb0910-823. PMC 3127249 . PMID 20811354.
- 1 2 Dorn GW (August 2010). "Mitochondrial pruning by Nix and BNip3: an essential function for cardiac-expressed death factors". Journal of Cardiovascular Translational Research. 3 (4): 374–83. doi:10.1007/s12265-010-9174-x. PMC 2900478 . PMID 20559783.
- ↑ MacLeod, Kay F. (2020). "Mitophagy and Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Cancer". Annual Review of Cancer Biology. 4: 41–60. doi: 10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-030419-033405 .
- ↑ Dorn GW (July 2005). "Physiologic growth and pathologic genes in cardiac development and cardiomyopathy". Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine. 15 (5): 185–9. doi:10.1016/j.tcm.2005.05.009. PMID 16165015.