Organic electrochemical transistor

Last updated

The organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) is an organic electronic device which functions like a transistor. The current flowing through the device is controlled by the exchange of ions between an electrolyte and the OECT channel composed of an organic conductor or semiconductor. [1] The exchange of ions is driven by a voltage applied to the gate electrode which is in ionic contact with the channel through the electrolyte. The migration of ions between the channel and the electrolyte is accompanied by electrochemical redox reactions occurring in the channel material. The electrochemical redox of the channel along with ion migration changes the conductivity of the channel in a process called electrochemical doping. OECTs are being explored for applications in biosensors, bioelectronics and large-area, low-cost electronics. OECTs can also be used as multi-bit memory devices that mimic the synaptic functionalities of the brain. For this reason, OECTs can be also being investigated as elements in neuromorphic computing applications.

Contents

OECT device construction and operating mechanism

OECTs consist of a semiconductor or even conductor thin-film (the channel), usually made of a conjugated polymer, which is in direct contact with an electrolyte. [2] Source and drain electrodes establish electrical contact to the channel, while a gate electrode establishes electrical contact to the electrolyte. The electrolyte can be liquid, gel, or solid. In the most common biasing configuration, the source is grounded and a voltage (drain voltage) is applied to the drain. This causes a current to flow (drain current), due to electronic charge (usually holes) present in the channel. When a voltage is applied to the gate, ions from the electrolyte are injected in the channel and change the electronic charge density, and hence the drain current. When the gate voltage is removed, the injected ions return to the electrolyte and the drain current goes back to its original value. However, some channel materials can hold the migrated ions even after removing the gate voltage enabling their use as memory devices.

OECTs commonly use PEDOT:PSS as the channel material, and work in the depletion mode. [3] The organic semiconductor PEDOT is doped p-type by the sulfonate anions of present in PSS [4] and hence PEDOT:PSS exhibits a high electronic conductivity. When no gate voltage is applied, a high drain current flows through the highly conductive channel, and the OECT is said to be in the ON state. When a positive voltage is applied to the gate, cations from the electrolyte are injected into the PEDOT:PSS channel, where they compensate the negative charge on the sulfonate anions. This leads to electrochemical reduction of PEDOT from its oxidised state to its neutral state resulting in de-doping of the OECT channel. The OECT is then said to be in the OFF state. [1] Accumulation mode OECTs, based on intrinsic organic semiconductors (for example p(g2T-TT)), have also been described. [5] [6]

OECTs are different from electrolyte-gated field-effect transistors. In the latter type of device, ions do not penetrate into the channel, but rather accumulate near its surface (or near the surface of a dielectric layer, when such a layer is deposited on the channel). [7] This induces accumulation of electronic charge inside the channel, near the surface. In contrast, in OECTs, ions are injected into the channel and change the electronic charge density throughout its entire volume. As a result of this bulk coupling between ionic and electronic charge, OECTs show a very high transconductance [8] along with an outstanding intrinsic gain. [9] The disadvantage of OECTs is that they are slow, as they are limited by the inherently slow migration of ions into and out of the channel. However, micro-fabricated OECTs show response times of the order of hundreds of microseconds. [10] Accurate simulation of OECTs is possible using the drift-diffusion model. [11]

OECTs were first developed in the 80’s by the group of Mark Wrighton. [12] They are currently the focus of intense development for applications in bioelectronics, [13] and in large-area, low-cost electronics. [14] Advantages such as straightforward fabrication and miniaturization, compatibility with low-cost printing techniques, [15] [16] compatibility with a wide range of mechanical supports (including fibers, [17] paper, [18] plastic [19] and elastomer [20] ), and stability in aqueous environments, led to their use in a variety of applications in biosensors. [21] [22] Moreover, their high transconductance makes OECTs powerful amplifying transducers. [23] OECTs have been used to detect ions, [24] [25] neurotransmitters, [9] metabolites, [26] [27] DNA, [28] pathogenic organisms, [29] as well as to probe cell adhesion, [30] measure the integrity of barrier tissue, [31] detect epileptic activity in rats, [32] and interface with electrically active cells and tissues. [33] [34] [35]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polythiophene</span>

Polythiophenes (PTs) are polymerized thiophenes, a sulfur heterocycle. The parent PT is an insoluble colored solid with the formula (C4H2S)n. The rings are linked through the 2- and 5-positions. Poly(alkylthiophene)s have alkyl substituents at the 3- or 4-position(s). They are also colored solids, but tend to be soluble in organic solvents.

Organic semiconductors are solids whose building blocks are pi-bonded molecules or polymers made up by carbon and hydrogen atoms and – at times – heteroatoms such as nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen. They exist in the form of molecular crystals or amorphous thin films. In general, they are electrical insulators, but become semiconducting when charges are either injected from appropriate electrodes, upon doping or by photoexcitation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PEDOT:PSS</span> Polymer

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) is a polymer mixture of two ionomers. One component in this mixture is made up of polystyrene sulfonate which is a sulfonated polystyrene. Part of the sulfonyl groups are deprotonated and carry a negative charge. The other component poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) is a conjugated polymer and carries positive charges and is based on polythiophene. Together the charged macromolecules form a macromolecular salt.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flow battery</span> Type of electrochemical cell

A flow battery, or redox flow battery, is a type of electrochemical cell where chemical energy is provided by two chemical components dissolved in liquids that are pumped through the system on separate sides of a membrane. Ion transfer inside the cell occurs across the membrane while the liquids circulate in their respective spaces.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)</span>

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) is a conducting polymer based on 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene or EDOT. It was first reported by Bayer AG in 1989.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanorod</span>

In nanotechnology, nanorods are one morphology of nanoscale objects. Each of their dimensions range from 1–100 nm. They may be synthesized from metals or semiconducting materials. Standard aspect ratios are 3-5. Nanorods are produced by direct chemical synthesis. A combination of ligands act as shape control agents and bond to different facets of the nanorod with different strengths. This allows different faces of the nanorod to grow at different rates, producing an elongated object.

The electrochemical window (EW) of a substance is the electrode electric potential range between which the substance is neither oxidized nor reduced. The EW is one of the most important characteristics to be identified for solvents and electrolytes used in electrochemical applications. The EW is a term that is commonly used to indicate the potential range and the potential difference. It is calculated by subtracting the reduction potential from the oxidation potential.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lithium-ion capacitor</span> Hybrid type of capacitor

A lithium-ion capacitor is a hybrid type of capacitor classified as a type of supercapacitor. It is called a hybrid because the anode is the same as those used in lithium-ion batteries and the cathode is the same as those used in supercapacitors. Activated carbon is typically used as the cathode. The anode of the LIC consists of carbon material which is often pre-doped with lithium ions. This pre-doping process lowers the potential of the anode and allows a relatively high output voltage compared to other supercapacitors.

In physics, the vacuum level refers to the energy of a free stationary electron that is outside of any material . It may be taken as infinitely far away from a solid, or, defined to be near a surface. Its definition and measurement are often discussed in ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy literature, for example As the vacuum level is a property of the electron and free space, it is often used as the level of alignment for the energy levels of two different materials. The vacuum level alignment approach may or may not hold due to details of the interface. It is particularly important in the design of vacuum device components such as cathodes.

A single-atom transistor is a device that can open and close an electrical circuit by the controlled and reversible repositioning of one single atom. The single-atom transistor was invented and first demonstrated in 2002 by Dr. Fangqing Xie in Prof. Thomas Schimmel's Group at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. By means of a small electrical voltage applied to a control electrode, the so-called gate electrode, a single silver atom is reversibly moved in and out of a tiny junction, in this way closing and opening an electrical contact.

Aluminium-ion batteries are a class of rechargeable battery in which aluminium ions serve as charge carriers. Aluminium can exchange three electrons per ion. This means that insertion of one Al3+ is equivalent to three Li+ ions. Thus, since the ionic radii of Al3+ (0.54 Å) and Li+ (0.76 Å) are similar, significantly higher numbers of electrons and Al3+ ions can be accepted by cathodes with little damage. Al has 50 times (23.5 megawatt-hours m-3) the energy density of Li and is even higher than coal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NASICON</span> Class of solid materials

NASICON is an acronym for sodium (Na) super ionic conductor, which usually refers to a family of solids with the chemical formula Na1+xZr2SixP3−xO12, 0 < x < 3. In a broader sense, it is also used for similar compounds where Na, Zr and/or Si are replaced by isovalent elements. NASICON compounds have high ionic conductivities, on the order of 10−3 S/cm, which rival those of liquid electrolytes. They are caused by hopping of Na ions among interstitial sites of the NASICON crystal lattice.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bio-FET</span> Type of field-effect transistor

A field-effect transistor-based biosensor, also known as a biosensor field-effect transistor, field-effect biosensor (FEB), or biosensor MOSFET, is a field-effect transistor that is gated by changes in the surface potential induced by the binding of molecules. When charged molecules, such as biomolecules, bind to the FET gate, which is usually a dielectric material, they can change the charge distribution of the underlying semiconductor material resulting in a change in conductance of the FET channel. A Bio-FET consists of two main compartments: one is the biological recognition element and the other is the field-effect transistor. The BioFET structure is largely based on the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution, and reference electrode.

Magnesium batteries are batteries that utilize magnesium cations as charge carriers and possibly in the anode in electrochemical cells. Both non-rechargeable primary cell and rechargeable secondary cell chemistries have been investigated. Magnesium primary cell batteries have been commercialised and have found use as reserve and general use batteries.

Róisín Owens is a professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. Her research investigates new engineering technology for biological applications with a focus on organic bioelectronics, developing electroactive materials that can be used between physical transducers and soft biological tissues.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Charge modulation spectroscopy</span>

Charge modulation spectroscopy is an electro-optical spectroscopy technique tool. It is used to study the charge carrier behavior of organic field-effect transistors. It measures the charge introduced optical transmission variation by directly probing the accumulation charge at the burning interface of semiconductor and dielectric layer where the conduction channel forms.

Calcium (ion) batteries are energy storage and delivery technologies (i.e., electro–chemical energy storage) that employ calcium ions (cations), Ca2+, as the active charge carrier. Calcium (ion) batteries remain an active area of research, with studies and work persisting in the discovery and development of electrodes and electrolytes that enable stable, long-term battery operation. Calcium batteries are rapidly emerging as a recognized alternative to Li-ion technology due to their similar performance, significantly greater abundance, and lower cost.

Electrochemical Random-Access Memory (ECRAM) is a type of non-volatile memory (NVM) with multiple levels per cell (MLC) designed for deep learning analog acceleration. An ECRAM cell is a three-terminal device composed of a conductive channel, an insulating electrolyte, an ionic reservoir, and metal contacts. The resistance of the channel is modulated by ionic exchange at the interface between the channel and the electrolyte upon application of an electric field. The charge-transfer process allows both for state retention in the absence of applied power, and for programming of multiple distinct levels, both differentiating ECRAM operation from that of a field-effect transistor (FET). The write operation is deterministic and can result in symmetrical potentiation and depression, making ECRAM arrays attractive for acting as artificial synaptic weights in physical implementations of artificial neural networks (ANN). The technological challenges include open circuit potential (OCP) and semiconductor foundry compatibility associated with energy materials. Universities, government laboratories, and corporate research teams have contributed to the development of ECRAM for analog computing. Notably, Sandia National Laboratories designed a lithium-based cell inspired by solid-state battery materials, Stanford University built an organic proton-based cell, and International Business Machines (IBM) demonstrated in-memory selector-free parallel programming for a logistic regression task in an array of metal-oxide ECRAM designed for insertion in the back end of line (BEOL). In 2022, researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology built an inorganic, CMOS-compatible protonic technology that achieved near-ideal modulation characteristics using nanosecond fast pulses

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zhong Lin Wang</span> Chinese-American physicist

Zhong Lin Wang is a Chinese-American physicist, materials scientist and engineer specialized in nanotechnology, energy science and electronics. He received his PhD from Arizona State University in 1987. He is the Hightower Chair in Materials Science and Engineering and Regents' Professor Chair Emeritus at the Georgia Institute of Technology, US.

Veronica Augustyn is an American materials scientist who is a professor and the Jake & Jennifer Hooks Distinguished Scholar in Materials Science & Engineering at North Carolina State University. Her research considers the behavior of materials at electrochemical interfaces for next-generation technologies.

References

  1. 1 2 Bernards, D. A.; Malliaras, G. G. (2007-10-16). "Steady-State and Transient Behavior of Organic Electrochemical Transistors". Advanced Functional Materials. 17 (17). Wiley: 3538–3544. doi:10.1002/adfm.200601239. ISSN   1616-301X. S2CID   97447440.
  2. ↑ Zeglio, Erica; Inganäs, Olle (2018). "Active Materials for Organic Electrochemical Transistors". Advanced Materials. 30 (44): 1800941. Bibcode:2018AdM....3000941Z. doi:10.1002/adma.201800941. ISSN   1521-4095. PMID   30022545. S2CID   51699034.
  3. ↑ Owens, Róisín M.; Malliaras, George G. (2010). "Organic Electronics at the Interface with Biology". MRS Bulletin. 35 (6). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 449–456. doi:10.1557/mrs2010.583. ISSN   0883-7694.
  4. ↑ A. Elschner, S. Kirchmeyer, W. Lövenich, U. Merker and K. Reuter, in PEDOT, Principles and Applications of an Intrinsically Conductive Polymer (CRC Press, 2010), pp. 113-166.
  5. ↑ Cho, Jeong Ho; Lee, Jiyoul; Xia, Yu; Kim, BongSoo; He, Yiyong; Renn, Michael J.; Lodge, Timothy P.; Daniel Frisbie, C. (2008-10-19). "Printable ion-gel gate dielectrics for low-voltage polymer thin-film transistors on plastic". Nature Materials. 7 (11). Springer Nature: 900–906. Bibcode:2008NatMa...7..900C. doi:10.1038/nmat2291. ISSN   1476-1122. PMID   18931674.
  6. ↑ Inal, Sahika; Rivnay, Jonathan; Leleux, Pierre; Ferro, Marc; Ramuz, Marc; Brendel, Johannes C.; Schmidt, Martina M.; Thelakkat, Mukundan; Malliaras, George G. (2014-10-13). "A High Transconductance Accumulation Mode Electrochemical Transistor". Advanced Materials. 26 (44). Wiley: 7450–7455. Bibcode:2014AdM....26.7450I. doi:10.1002/adma.201403150. ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   25312252. S2CID   205257151.
  7. ↑ Kim, Se Hyun; Hong, Kihyon; Xie, Wei; Lee, Keun Hyung; Zhang, Sipei; Lodge, Timothy P.; Frisbie, C. Daniel (2012-12-02). "Electrolyte-Gated Transistors for Organic and Printed Electronics". Advanced Materials. 25 (13). Wiley: 1822–1846. doi:10.1002/adma.201202790. ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   23203564. S2CID   205247030.
  8. ↑ Khodagholy, Dion; Rivnay, Jonathan; Sessolo, Michele; Gurfinkel, Moshe; Leleux, Pierre; et al. (2013-07-12). "High transconductance organic electrochemical transistors". Nature Communications. 4 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 2133. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2133K. doi: 10.1038/ncomms3133 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   3717497 . PMID   23851620.
  9. 1 2 Ferro, Letícia M. M.; Merces, Leandro; de Camargo, Davi H. S.; Bof Bufon, Carlos C. (2021-07-22). "Ultrahigh-Gain Organic Electrochemical Transistor Chemosensors Based on Self-Curled Nanomembranes". Advanced Materials. 33 (29). Wiley: 2101518. Bibcode:2021AdM....3301518F. doi:10.1002/adma.202101518. ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   34061409. S2CID   235269557.
  10. ↑ Khodagholy, Dion; Gurfinkel, Moshe; Stavrinidou, Eleni; Leleux, Pierre; Herve, Thierry; Sanaur, Sébastien; Malliaras, George G. (2011-10-17). "High speed and high density organic electrochemical transistor arrays". Applied Physics Letters. 99 (16). AIP Publishing: 163304. Bibcode:2011ApPhL..99p3304K. doi: 10.1063/1.3652912 . ISSN   0003-6951.
  11. ↑ Szymanski, Marek; Tu, Deyu; Forchheimer, Robert (2017). "2-D Drift-Diffusion Simulation of Organic Electrochemical Transistors". IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 64 (12): 5114–5120. Bibcode:2017ITED...64.5114S. doi:10.1109/TED.2017.2757766. S2CID   28231599.
  12. ↑ White, Henry S.; Kittlesen, Gregg P.; Wrighton, Mark S. (1984). "Chemical derivatization of an array of three gold microelectrodes with polypyrrole: fabrication of a molecule-based transistor". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 106 (18). American Chemical Society (ACS): 5375–5377. doi:10.1021/ja00330a070. ISSN   0002-7863.
  13. ↑ Strakosas, Xenofon; Bongo, Manuelle; Owens, Róisín M. (2015-01-07). "The organic electrochemical transistor for biological applications". Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 132 (15). Wiley: 41735. doi:10.1002/app.41735. ISSN   0021-8995.
  14. ↑ Nilsson, D.; Robinson, N.; Berggren, M.; Forchheimer, R. (2005-02-10). "Electrochemical Logic Circuits". Advanced Materials. 17 (3). Wiley: 353–358. Bibcode:2005AdM....17..353N. doi:10.1002/adma.200401273. ISSN   0935-9648. S2CID   135787001.
  15. ↑ D. Nilsson, M. X. Chen, T. Kugler, T. Remonen, M. Armgarth and M. Berggren, Adv. Mater. 14, 51 (2002).
  16. ↑ Basiricò, L.; Cosseddu, P.; Scidà, A.; Fraboni, B.; Malliaras, G.G.; Bonfiglio, A. (2012). "Electrical characteristics of ink-jet printed, all-polymer electrochemical transistors". Organic Electronics. 13 (2). Elsevier BV: 244–248. doi:10.1016/j.orgel.2011.11.010. ISSN   1566-1199.
  17. ↑ Hamedi, Mahiar; Forchheimer, Robert; Inganäs, Olle (2007-04-04). "Towards woven logic from organic electronic fibres". Nature Materials. 6 (5). Springer Nature: 357–362. Bibcode:2007NatMa...6..357H. doi:10.1038/nmat1884. ISSN   1476-1122. PMID   17406663.
  18. ↑ Nilsson, D (2002-09-20). "An all-organic sensor–transistor based on a novel electrochemical transducer concept printed electrochemical sensors on paper". Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical. 86 (2–3). Elsevier BV: 193–197. doi:10.1016/s0925-4005(02)00170-3. ISSN   0925-4005.
  19. ↑ Zhang, Shiming; Hubis, Elizabeth; Girard, Camille; Kumar, Prajwal; DeFranco, John; Cicoira, Fabio (2016). "Water stability and orthogonal patterning of flexible micro-electrochemical transistors on plastic". Journal of Materials Chemistry C. 4 (7). Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC): 1382–1385. doi:10.1039/c5tc03664j. ISSN   2050-7526.
  20. ↑ Zhang, Shiming; Hubis, Elizabeth; Tomasello, Gaia; Soliveri, Guido; Kumar, Prajwal; Cicoira, Fabio (2017-03-08). "Patterning of Stretchable Organic Electrochemical Transistors". Chemistry of Materials. 29 (7). American Chemical Society (ACS): 3126–3132. doi:10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00181. ISSN   0897-4756.
  21. ↑ Zhang, Shiming; Cicoira, Fabio (2018). "Flexible self-powered biosensors". Nature. 561 (7724). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 466–467. Bibcode:2018Natur.561..466Z. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-06788-1. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   30258144. S2CID   52844636.
  22. ↑ Lin, Peng; Yan, Feng (2011-11-21). "Organic Thin-Film Transistors for Chemical and Biological Sensing". Advanced Materials. 24 (1). Wiley: 34–51. doi:10.1002/adma.201103334. hdl: 10397/11453 . ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   22102447. S2CID   205242523.
  23. ↑ Rivnay, Jonathan; Leleux, Pierre; Sessolo, Michele; Khodagholy, Dion; Hervé, Thierry; Fiocchi, Michel; Malliaras, George G. (2013-10-02). "Organic Electrochemical Transistors with Maximum Transconductance at Zero Gate Bias". Advanced Materials. 25 (48). Wiley: 7010–7014. Bibcode:2013AdM....25.7010R. doi:10.1002/adma.201303080. ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   24123258. S2CID   205251741.
  24. ↑ Svensson, Per-Olof; Nilsson, David; Forchheimer, Robert; Berggren, Magnus (2008-11-17). "A sensor circuit using reference-based conductance switching in organic electrochemical transistors". Applied Physics Letters. 93 (20). AIP Publishing: 203301. Bibcode:2008ApPhL..93t3301S. doi: 10.1063/1.2975377 . ISSN   0003-6951.
  25. ↑ Sessolo, Michele; Rivnay, Jonathan; Bandiello, Enrico; Malliaras, George G.; Bolink, Henk J. (2014-05-23). "Ion-Selective Organic Electrochemical Transistors". Advanced Materials. 26 (28). Wiley: 4803–4807. Bibcode:2014AdM....26.4803S. doi:10.1002/adma.201400731. ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   24862110. S2CID   205255158.
  26. ↑ Zhu, Zheng-Tao; Mabeck, Jeffrey T.; Zhu, Changcheng; Cady, Nathaniel C.; Batt, Carl A.; Malliaras, George G. (2004). "A simple poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene)/poly(styrene sulfonic acid) transistor for glucose sensing at neutral pH". Chemical Communications (13). Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC): 1556–1557. doi:10.1039/b403327m. ISSN   1359-7345. PMID   15216378.
  27. ↑ Tang, Hao; Yan, Feng; Lin, Peng; Xu, Jianbin; Chan, Helen L. W. (2011-04-26). "Highly Sensitive Glucose Biosensors Based on Organic Electrochemical Transistors Using Platinum Gate Electrodes Modified with Enzyme and Nanomaterials". Advanced Functional Materials. 21 (12). Wiley: 2264–2272. doi:10.1002/adfm.201002117. hdl: 10397/33050 . ISSN   1616-301X. S2CID   98742240.
  28. ↑ Lin, Peng; Luo, Xiaoteng; Hsing, I-Ming; Yan, Feng (2011-07-27). "Organic Electrochemical Transistors Integrated in Flexible Microfluidic Systems and Used for Label-Free DNA Sensing". Advanced Materials. 23 (35). Wiley: 4035–4040. Bibcode:2011AdM....23.4035L. doi:10.1002/adma.201102017. hdl: 10397/11943 . ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   21793055. S2CID   205241505.
  29. ↑ He, Rong-Xiang; Zhang, Meng; Tan, Fei; Leung, Polly H. M.; Zhao, Xing-Zhong; Chan, Helen L. W.; Yang, Mo; Yan, Feng (2012). "Detection of bacteria with organic electrochemical transistors". Journal of Materials Chemistry. 22 (41). Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC): 22072. doi:10.1039/c2jm33667g. hdl: 10397/12945 . ISSN   0959-9428.
  30. ↑ Lin, Peng; Yan, Feng; Yu, Jinjiang; Chan, Helen L. W.; Yang, Mo (2010-08-20). "The Application of Organic Electrochemical Transistors in Cell-Based Biosensors". Advanced Materials. 22 (33). Wiley: 3655–3660. Bibcode:2010AdM....22.3655L. doi:10.1002/adma.201000971. hdl: 10397/15450 . ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   20661950. S2CID   39442648.
  31. ↑ Jimison, Leslie H; Tria, Scherrine A.; Khodagholy, Dion; Gurfinkel, Moshe; Lanzarini, Erica; Hama, Adel; Malliaras, George G.; Owens, Róisín M. (2012-09-05). "Measurement of Barrier Tissue Integrity with an Organic Electrochemical Transistor". Advanced Materials. 24 (44). Wiley: 5919–5923. Bibcode:2012AdM....24.5919J. doi:10.1002/adma.201202612. ISSN   0935-9648. PMID   22949380. S2CID   22510220.
  32. ↑ Khodagholy, Dion; Rivnay, Jonathan; Sessolo, Michele; Gurfinkel, Moshe; Leleux, Pierre; Jimison, Leslie H.; Stavrinidou, Eleni; Herve, Thierry; Sanaur, Sébastien; Owens, Róisín M.; Malliaras, George G. (2013-07-12). "High transconductance organic electrochemical transistors". Nature Communications. 4 (1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1575. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2133K. doi: 10.1038/ncomms3133 . ISSN   2041-1723. PMC   3717497 . PMID   23851620.
  33. ↑ Campana, Alessandra; Cramer, Tobias; Simon, Daniel T.; Berggren, Magnus; Biscarini, Fabio (2014). "Organic Electrochemical Transistors: Electrocardiographic Recording with Conformable Organic Electrochemical Transistor Fabricated on Resorbable Bioscaffold". Advanced Materials. 26 (23). Wiley: 3873. doi: 10.1002/adma.201470165 . ISSN   0935-9648.
  34. ↑ Leleux, Pierre; Rivnay, Jonathan; Lonjaret, Thomas; Badier, Jean-Michel; Bénar, Christian; Hervé, Thierry; Chauvel, Patrick; Malliaras, George G. (2014-09-29). "Organic Electrochemical Transistors for Clinical Applications". Advanced Healthcare Materials. 4 (1). Wiley: 142–147. doi:10.1002/adhm.201400356. ISSN   2192-2640. PMID   25262967. S2CID   32442448.
  35. ↑ Yao, Chunlei; Li, Qianqian; Guo, Jing; Yan, Feng; Hsing, I-Ming (2014-10-31). "Rigid and Flexible Organic Electrochemical Transistor Arrays for Monitoring Action Potentials from Electrogenic Cells". Advanced Healthcare Materials. 4 (4). Wiley: 528–533. doi:10.1002/adhm.201400406. ISSN   2192-2640. PMID   25358525. S2CID   28927047.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.