Bioelectronics

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Bioelectronics is a field of research in the convergence of biology and electronics.

Contents

Definitions

A ribosome is a biological machine that utilizes protein dynamics Protein translation.gif
A ribosome is a biological machine that utilizes protein dynamics

At the first C.E.C. Workshop, in Brussels in November 1991, bioelectronics was defined as 'the use of biological materials and biological architectures for information processing systems and new devices'. Bioelectronics, specifically bio-molecular electronics, were described as 'the research and development of bio-inspired (i.e. self-assembly) inorganic and organic materials and of bio-inspired (i.e. massive parallelism) hardware architectures for the implementation of new information processing systems, sensors and actuators, and for molecular manufacturing down to the atomic scale'. [1] The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), an agency of the United States Department of Commerce, defined bioelectronics in a 2009 report as "the discipline resulting from the convergence of biology and electronics". [2] : 5 

Sources for information about the field include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) with its Elsevier journal Biosensors and Bioelectronics published since 1990. The journal describes the scope of bioelectronics as seeking to : "... exploit biology in conjunction with electronics in a wider context encompassing, for example, biological fuel cells, bionics and biomaterials for information processing, information storage, electronic components and actuators. A key aspect is the interface between biological materials and micro and nano-electronics." [3]

History

The first known study of bioelectronics took place in the 18th century when scientist Luigi Galvani applied a voltage to a pair of detached frog legs. The legs moved, sparking the genesis of bioelectronics. [4] Electronics technology has been applied to biology and medicine since the pacemaker was invented and with the medical imaging industry. In 2009, a survey of publications using the term in title or abstract suggested that the center of activity was in Europe (43 percent), followed by Asia (23 percent) and the United States (20 percent). [2] : 6 

Materials

Organic bioelectronics is the application of organic electronic material to the field of bioelectronics. Organic materials (i.e. containing carbon) show great promise when it comes to interfacing with biological systems. [5] Current applications focus around neuroscience [6] [7] and infection. [8] [9]

Conducting polymer coatings, an organic electronic material, shows massive improvement in the technology of materials. It was the most sophisticated form of electrical stimulation. It improved the impedance of electrodes in electrical stimulation, resulting in better recordings and reducing "harmful electrochemical side reactions." Organic Electrochemical Transistors (OECT) were invented in 1984 by Mark Wrighton and colleagues, which had the ability to transport ions. This improved signal-to-noise ratio and gives for low measured impedance. The Organic Electronic Ion Pump (OEIP), a device that could be used to target specific body parts and organs to adhere medicine, was created by Magnuss Berggren. [4]

As one of the few materials well established in CMOS technology, titanium nitride (TiN) turned out as exceptionally stable and well suited for electrode applications in medical implants. [10] [11]

Significant applications

Bioelectronics is used to help improve the lives of people with disabilities and diseases. For example, the glucose monitor is a portable device that allows diabetic patients to control and measure their blood sugar levels. [4] Electrical stimulation used to treat patients with epilepsy, chronic pain, Parkinson's, deafness, Essential Tremor and blindness. [12] [13] Magnuss Berggren and colleagues created a variation of his OEIP, the first bioelectronic implant device that was used in a living, free animal for therapeutic reasons. It transmitted electric currents into GABA, an acid. A lack of GABA in the body is a factor in chronic pain. GABA would then be dispersed properly to the damaged nerves, acting as a painkiller. [7] Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) is used to activate the Cholinergic Anti-inflammatory Pathway (CAP) in the vagus nerve, ending in reduced inflammation in patients with diseases like arthritis. Since patients with depression and epilepsy are more vulnerable to having a closed CAP, VNS can aid them as well. [14] At the same time, not all the systems that have electronics used to help improving the lives of people are necessarily bioelectronic devices, but only those which involve an intimate and directly interface of electronics and biological systems. [15]

Future

The improvement of standards and tools to monitor the state of cells at subcellular resolutions is lacking funding and employment. This is a problem because advances in other fields of science are beginning to analyze large cell populations, increasing the need for a device that can monitor cells at such a level of sight. Cells cannot be used in many ways other than their main purpose, like detecting harmful substances. Merging this science with forms of nanotechnology could result in incredibly accurate detection methods. The preserving of human lives like protecting against bioterrorism is the biggest area of work being done in bioelectronics. Governments are starting to demand devices and materials that detect chemical and biological threats. The more the size of the devices decrease, there will be an increase in performance and capabilities. [2]

See also

Related Research Articles

A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical substance, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector. The sensitive biological element, e.g. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc., is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts with, binds with, or recognizes the analyte under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be created by biological engineering. The transducer or the detector element, which transforms one signal into another one, works in a physicochemical way: optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical, electrochemiluminescence etc., resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological element, to easily measure and quantify. The biosensor reader device connects with the associated electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way. This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device, however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive element. The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to suit the different working principles of biosensors.

Nanosensors are nanoscale devices that measure physical quantities and convert these to signals that can be detected and analyzed. There are several ways proposed today to make nanosensors; these include top-down lithography, bottom-up assembly, and molecular self-assembly. There are different types of nanosensors in the market and in development for various applications, most notably in defense, environmental, and healthcare industries. These sensors share the same basic workflow: a selective binding of an analyte, signal generation from the interaction of the nanosensor with the bio-element, and processing of the signal into useful metrics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wetware computer</span> Computer composed of organic material

A wetware computer is an organic computer composed of organic material "wetware" such as "living" neurons. Wetware computers composed of neurons are different than conventional computers because they use biological materials, and offer the possibility of substantially more energy-efficient computing. While a wetware computer is still largely conceptual, there has been limited success with construction and prototyping, which has acted as a proof of the concept's realistic application to computing in the future. The most notable prototypes have stemmed from the research completed by biological engineer William Ditto during his time at the Georgia Institute of Technology. His work constructing a simple neurocomputer capable of basic addition from leech neurons in 1999 was a significant discovery for the concept. This research acted as a primary example driving interest in the creation of these artificially constructed, but still organic brains.

Rahul Sarpeshkar is the Thomas E. Kurtz Professor and a professor of engineering, professor of physics, professor of microbiology & immunology, and professor of molecular and systems biology at Dartmouth. Sarpeshkar, whose interdisciplinary work is in bioengineering, electrical engineering, quantum physics, and biophysics, is the inaugural chair of the William H. Neukom cluster of computational science, which focuses on analog, quantum, and biological computation. The clusters, designed by faculty from across the institution to address major global challenges, are part of President Philip Hanlon's vision for strengthening academic excellence at Dartmouth. Prior to Dartmouth, Sarpeshkar was a tenured professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and led the Analog Circuits and Biological Systems Group. He is now also a visiting scientist at MIT's Research Laboratory of Electronics.

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a type of bioelectrochemical fuel cell system also known as micro fuel cell that generates electric current by diverting electrons produced from the microbial oxidation of reduced compounds on the anode to oxidized compounds such as oxygen on the cathode through an external electrical circuit. MFCs produce electricity by using the electrons derived from biochemical reactions catalyzed by bacteria. MFCs can be grouped into two general categories: mediated and unmediated. The first MFCs, demonstrated in the early 20th century, used a mediator: a chemical that transfers electrons from the bacteria in the cell to the anode. Unmediated MFCs emerged in the 1970s; in this type of MFC the bacteria typically have electrochemically active redox proteins such as cytochromes on their outer membrane that can transfer electrons directly to the anode. In the 21st century MFCs have started to find commercial use in wastewater treatment.

A paper battery is engineered to use a spacer formed largely of cellulose. It incorporates nanoscopic scale structures to act as high surface-area electrodes to improve conductivity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biointerface</span>

A biointerface is the region of contact between a biomolecule, cell, biological tissue or living organism or organic material considered living with another biomaterial or inorganic/organic material. The motivation for biointerface science stems from the urgent need to increase the understanding of interactions between biomolecules and surfaces. The behavior of complex macromolecular systems at materials interfaces are important in the fields of biology, biotechnology, diagnostics, and medicine. Biointerface science is a multidisciplinary field in which biochemists who synthesize novel classes of biomolecules cooperate with scientists who have developed the tools to position biomolecules with molecular precision, scientists who have developed new spectroscopic techniques to interrogate these molecules at the solid-liquid interface, and people who integrate these into functional devices. Well-designed biointerfaces would facilitate desirable interactions by providing optimized surfaces where biological matter can interact with other inorganic or organic materials, such as by promoting cell and tissue adhesion onto a surface.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">E-textiles</span> Fabrics that incorporate electronic components

Electronic textiles or e-textiles are fabrics that enable electronic components such as batteries, lights, sensors, and microcontrollers to be embedded in them. They are not to be confused with smart textiles, which are fabrics that have been developed with new technologies that provide added value. Many smart clothing, wearable technology, and wearable computing projects involve the use of e-textiles.

A biotransducer is the recognition-transduction component of a biosensor system. It consists of two intimately coupled parts; a bio-recognition layer and a physicochemical transducer, which acting together converts a biochemical signal to an electronic or optical signal. The bio-recognition layer typically contains an enzyme or another binding protein such as antibody. However, oligonucleotide sequences, sub-cellular fragments such as organelles and receptor carrying fragments, single whole cells, small numbers of cells on synthetic scaffolds, or thin slices of animal or plant tissues, may also comprise the bio-recognition layer. It gives the biosensor selectivity and specificity. The physicochemical transducer is typically in intimate and controlled contact with the recognition layer. As a result of the presence and biochemical action of the analyte, a physico-chemical change is produced within the biorecognition layer that is measured by the physicochemical transducer producing a signal that is proportionate to the concentration of the analyte. The physicochemical transducer may be electrochemical, optical, electronic, gravimetric, pyroelectric or piezoelectric. Based on the type of biotransducer, biosensors can be classified as shown to the right.

<i>Biosensors and Bioelectronics</i> Academic journal

Biosensors and Bioelectronics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier. It covers research on biosensors and bioelectronics. The journal was established in 1985 as Biosensors and obtained its current name in 1991. The journal was established by I. John Higgins, W. Geoff Potter and Anthony P.F. Turner, who became editor-in-chief, until his retirement in 2019. The current Editors in Chief are Chenzhong Li, Arben Merkoçi, and Man Bock Gu.

The organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) is an organic electronic device which functions like a transistor. The current flowing through the device is controlled by the exchange of ions between an electrolyte and the OECT channel composed of an organic conductor or semiconductor. The exchange of ions is driven by a voltage applied to the gate electrode which is in ionic contact with the channel through the electrolyte. The migration of ions between the channel and the electrolyte is accompanied by electrochemical redox reactions occurring in the channel material. The electrochemical redox of the channel along with ion migration changes the conductivity of the channel in a process called electrochemical doping. OECTs are being explored for applications in biosensors, bioelectronics and large-area, low-cost electronics. OECTs can also be used as multi-bit memory devices that mimic the synaptic functionalities of the brain. For this reason, OECTs can be also being investigated as elements in neuromorphic computing applications.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bio-FET</span> Type of field-effect transistor

A field-effect transistor-based biosensor, also known as a biosensor field-effect transistor, field-effect biosensor (FEB), or biosensor MOSFET, is a field-effect transistor that is gated by changes in the surface potential induced by the binding of molecules. When charged molecules, such as biomolecules, bind to the FET gate, which is usually a dielectric material, they can change the charge distribution of the underlying semiconductor material resulting in a change in conductance of the FET channel. A Bio-FET consists of two main compartments: one is the biological recognition element and the other is the field-effect transistor. The BioFET structure is largely based on the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution, and reference electrode.

Róisín Owens is a professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Newnham College, Cambridge. Her research investigates new engineering technology for biological applications with a focus on organic bioelectronics, developing electroactive materials that can be used between physical transducers and soft biological tissues.

Carlotta Guiducci is an Italian bio-engineer. Her research is invested in bio-molecular analysis based on lab-on-a-chip devices. She is an Associate Professor at EPFL and head of the Laboratory of Life Sciences Electronics located at EPFL's Lausanne campus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Polina Anikeeva</span>

Polina Olegovna Anikeeva is a Russian-born American materials scientist who is a Professor of Material Science & Engineering as well as Brain & Cognitive Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). She also holds faculty appointments in the McGovern Institute for Brain Research and Research Laboratory of Electronics at MIT. Her research is centered on developing tools for studying the underlying molecular and cellular bases of behavior and neurological diseases. She was awarded the 2018 Vilcek Foundation Prize for Creative Promise in Biomedical Science, the 2020 MacVicar Faculty Fellowship at MIT, and in 2015 was named a MIT Technology Review Innovator Under 35.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chenzhong Li</span> Chinese-born American biomedical engineer

Chenzhong Li is a Chinese-born Canadian & American biomedical engineer, chemist, inventor, professor, and journal editor. Li is the co-Editor-in-Chief of the journal Biosensors and Bioelectronics (Elsevier) and the associate editors of journals RESEARCH (AAAS) and Biosensors (MDPI).

Sahika Inal is a Turkish scientist who is an associate professor and Chair of the Organic Bioelectronics Laboratory at King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. She is interested in the use of organic electronic materials for monitoring health, and the design of biocompatible devices that can interface with the human body. In 2021, she was shortlisted for the Nature Portfolio Scientific Achievement award.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chi Hwan Lee</span> American biomedical engineer, academic, and researcher

Chi Hwan Lee is an American biomedical engineer, academic, and researcher. He is the Leslie A. Geddes Associate Professor of Biomedical Engineering and associate professor of mechanical engineering, and by courtesy, of materials engineering and speech, language, and hearing sciences at Purdue University.

References

  1. ↑ Nicolini C (1995). "From neural chip and engineered biomolecules to bioelectronic devices: an overview". Biosensors & Bioelectronics. 10 (1–2): 105–27. doi:10.1016/0956-5663(95)96799-5. PMID   7734117.
  2. 1 2 3 "A Framework for Bioelectronics: Discovery and Innovation" (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. February 2009. p. 42.
  3. ↑ "Biosensors and Bioelectronics". Elsevier.
  4. 1 2 3 Rivnay J, Owens RM, Malliaras GG (January 14, 2014). "The Rise of Organic Bioelectronics". Chemistry of Materials. 26 (1): 679–685. doi:10.1021/cm4022003.
  5. ↑ Owens R, Kjall P, Richter-Dahlfors A, Cicoira F (September 2013). "Organic bioelectronics - novel applications in biomedicine. Preface". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1830 (9): 4283–5. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.04.025. PMID   23623969.
  6. ↑ Simon DT, Larsson KC, Nilsson D, Burström G, Galter D, Berggren M, Richter-Dahlfors A (September 2015). "An organic electronic biomimetic neuron enables auto-regulated neuromodulation". Biosensors & Bioelectronics. 71: 359–364. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2015.04.058. PMID   25932795.
  7. 1 2 Jonsson A, Song Z, Nilsson D, Meyerson BA, Simon DT, Linderoth B, Berggren M (May 2015). "Therapy using implanted organic bioelectronics". Science Advances. 1 (4): e1500039. Bibcode:2015SciA....1E0039J. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500039. PMC   4640645 . PMID   26601181.
  8. ↑ Löffler S, Libberton B, Richter-Dahlfors A (2015). "Organic bioelectronics in infection". Journal of Materials Chemistry B. 3 (25): 4979–4992. doi: 10.1039/C5TB00382B . PMID   32262450.
  9. ↑ Löffler S, Libberton B, Richter-Dahlfors A (November 2015). "Organic Bioelectronic Tools for Biomedical Applications". Electronics. 4 (4): 879–908. doi: 10.3390/electronics4040879 .
  10. ↑ Hämmerle H, Kobuch K, Kohler K, Nisch W, Sachs H, Stelzle M (February 2002). "Biostability of micro-photodiode arrays for subretinal implantation". Biomaterials. 23 (3): 797–804. doi:10.1016/S0142-9612(01)00185-5. PMID   11771699.
  11. ↑ Glogener P, Krause M, Katzer J, Schubert MA, Birkholz M, Bellmann O, Kröger-Koch C, Hammonn HM, Metges CC, Welsch C, Ruff R, Hoffmann KP (2018). "Prolonged corrosion stability of a microchip sensor implant during in vivo exposure". Biosensors. 8 (1): 13. doi: 10.3390/bios8010013 . PMC   5872061 . PMID   29389853.
  12. ↑ Simon DT, Gabrielsson EO, Tybrandt K, Berggren M (November 2016). "Organic Bioelectronics: Bridging the Signaling Gap between Biology and Technology". Chemical Reviews. 116 (21): 13009–13041. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00146 . PMID   27367172.
  13. ↑ "DE NOVO CLASSIFICATION REQUEST FOR CALA ONE" (PDF). Retrieved September 11, 2021.
  14. ↑ Koopman FA, Schuurman PR, Vervoordeldonk MJ, Tak PP (August 2014). "Vagus nerve stimulation: a new bioelectronics approach to treat rheumatoid arthritis?". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Rheumatology. 28 (4): 625–35. doi: 10.1016/j.berh.2014.10.015 . PMID   25481554.
  15. ↑ Carrara S, Iniewski K (2015). Carrara S, Iniewski K (eds.). Handbook of Bioelectronics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–569. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139629539. ISBN   9781139629539.
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