Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel

Last updated
Logo of the Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel, intended to evoke the five science drivers of particle physics Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel logo.svg
Logo of the Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel, intended to evoke the five science drivers of particle physics

The Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel (P5) is a scientific advisory panel tasked with recommending plans for U.S. investment in particle physics research over the next ten years, on the basis of various funding scenarios. The P5 is a temporary subcommittee of the High Energy Physics Advisory Panel (HEPAP), which serves the Department of Energy's Office of Science and the National Science Foundation. In 2014, the panel was chaired by Steven Ritz of the University of California, Santa Cruz. [1] In 2023, the panel was chaired by Hitoshi Murayama of the University of California, Berkeley. [2]

Contents

2014 report

In 2013, HEPAP was asked to convene a panel (the P5) to evaluate research priorities in the context of anticipated developments in the field globally in the next 20 years. Recommendations were to be made on the basis of three funding scenarios for high-energy physics: [3]

Science drivers

In May 2014, the first P5 report since 2008 was released. The 2014 report identified five "science drivers"—goals intended to inform funding priorities—drawn from a year-long discussion within the particle physics community. These science drivers are: [4]

Recommendations

In pursuit of the five science drivers, the 2014 report identified three "high priority large category" projects meriting significant investment in the FY2014–2023 period, regardless of the broader funding situation: the High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (a proposed upgrade to the Large Hadron Collider located at CERN in Europe); the International Linear Collider (a proposed electron-positron collider, likely hosted in Japan); and the Long Baseline Neutrino Facility (an expansion of the proposed Long Baseline Neutrino Experiment (that was renamed the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment), to be constructed at Fermilab in Illinois and at the Homestake Mine in South Dakota). [5]

In addition to these large projects, the report identified numerous smaller projects with potential for near-term return on investment, including the Mu2e experiment, second- and third-generation dark matter experiments, particle-physics components of the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), cosmic microwave background experiments, and a number of small neutrino experiments.

The report made several recommendations for significant shifts in priority, namely: [4]

The panel stressed that the most conservative of the funding scenarios considered would endanger the ability of the U.S. to host a major particle physics project while maintaining the necessary supporting elements. [4]

Impact and outcomes since 2014

A goal of the 2014 P5 exercise was to provide Congress with a science-justified roadmap for project funding. Five years later, in 2019, the Department of Energy Office of Science declared: [6] "Congressional appropriations reflect strong support for P5. Language in appropriations reports have consistently recognized community’s efforts in creating and executing the P5 report strategy" and "P5 was wildly successful." From 2016 to 2020, the High Energy Physics (HEP) budget grew from less than $800 million to more than $1 billion. [7]

However, members of the HEP community were concerned because the increased funding went primarily toward projects, while funding for core research and technology programs, which was also supported by P5, declined from $361 million to $316 million. [7] In 2020, an assessment of progress of the P5-defined program produced by the High Energy Physics Advisory Panel (HEPAP) concluded: [8] "While investments over the past 5 years have focused on project construction, it will be fundamentally important to balance the components of the HEP budget to continue successful execution of the P5 plan. Operations of the newly constructed experiments require full support to reap their scientific goals. The HEP research program also needs strong support to fully execute the plan, throughout the construction, operations, and data analysis phases of the experiments, and to lay a foundation for the future."

As of 2022, several of the "Large Projects" identified as priorities by the 2014 P5 had fallen considerably behind schedule or been affected by cost gaps, including:

Prelude to the 2023 report

Issues

The P5 process occurred in spring 2023 and was informed by the outcomes of the 2021 Snowmass Process finalized in summer 2022. [14] The Snowmass 2021 study identified two existential threats to the field that P5 must address:

Along with these major issues, P5 also faces a field that is less unified than in 2014, as was emphasized by the title of the Scientific American report on Snowmass 2021 outcomes: "Physicists Struggle to Unite around Future Plans." [15] Some members of the field have expressed that the pressure to project a unified opinion is stifling debate, with one physicists telling a reporter from Physics Today: "There are big issues people didn’t discuss." [16] Panel chair Hitoshi Murayama has expressed awareness of this problem, saying that "community buy-in is key" for the success of the P5 report. [18]

Panel

The membership of the 2023 P5 was announced in December 2022, with Hitoshi Murayama of the University of California, Berkeley as head. [2] [19] See the official page.

Similar to 2014, the 2023 P5 members are all particle and accelerator physicists; no members specialize in project management. [19] This places the committee in a good position to evaluate responses to the "nightmare scenario." However, this makes it difficult for the members to assess whether the information on cost and schedule provided to the committee has a sound basis. That lack of expertise may explain how the 2014 P5 failed to foresee the LBNF/DUNE cost-and-schedule crisis, and will make it difficult for the 2023 P5 to head off an "SSC scenario." [ citation needed ]

Tasking

Regina Rameika from the Department of Energy Office of Science summarized the P5 charge [20] in a presentation to the High Energy Physics Advisory Panel on Dec. 8, 2022. [21] The charge asked P5 to:

The priority of projects is being considered within two funding scenarios from the Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). [22] The first, which was described by physicists as "grim", envisions a 2% increase per year of the high energy physics budgets for DOE and NSF. The second assumes full funding from the 2022 CHIPS And Science Act [23] and a 3% increase per year to DOE and NSF HEP. P5 is asked to consider operating costs, including the rising cost of energy to run accelerators. [22]

Input from community meetings and town halls

Throughout 2023, P5 received input from the community through meetings that included invited talks and requested talks in a "town hall" format. Four meetings were held at national laboratories. [24] [25] [26] [27] Two virtual town halls were also held. [28] [29] The topics of the meetings covered physics goals across the range of topics defined by the Snowmass Study, as well as the balance of university- and laboratory-based research, opportunities for early early career scientists, and the need for public outreach.

Input from the International Benchmarking Report

In Autumn 2023, the P5 Panel received input from the HEPAP International Benchmarking Subpanel, headed by Fermilab scientists. [30] This report [31] is one in a series of evaluations of DOE supported science in an international context. Differences between high energy physics and the rest of the physics community are apparent in the report. For example, the report that citations are a poor metric for measurement of scientific impact. Two points made in the report are especially relevant to P5 considerations: [31] 1) The US should prioritize being a "partner of choice" and 2) The US requires a range of project sizes and goals to maintain a healthy "scientific ecosystem".

The primary outcome of the benchmarking report was that "the U.S. is not always viewed as a reliable partner, largely due to unpredictable budgets and inadequate communication, and that shortcomings in domestic HEP programs are jeopardizing U.S. leadership." [30] The report highlighted that the 1993 cancellation of the Superconducting Super Collider and the sudden 2008 termination of the B physics program at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, and the abrupt end of the TeVatron program at Fermilab followed by the immediate dismantling of the accelerator have caused the international community to lose confidence that the US will complete projects. [30] Without addressing the DUNE project directly, this recommendation pointed to the potential negative impact on international cooperation if DUNE were abruptly curtailed by P5.

A second major recommendation of the benchmarking report focused on the need to maintain a program of projects at all scales, from small to large, and that are chosen to specifically enhance areas in which the US technology is lagging, such as in accelerator physics. [30] This echoed calls from the community expressed in the P5 Town Halls.

The 2023 report

In December 2023, the 2023 P5 report was released. [32] The proposals contained therein were intended to help better understand some of the current concerns of particle physics, including challenges to the Standard Model, and involve studies primarily dealing with gravity, black holes, dark matter, dark energy, Higgs boson, muons, neutrinos, and more. [33] [34]

The 2023 P5 report identified three science drivers, each with two experimental approaches:

“Decipher the Quantum Realm” through “Elucidat[ing] the Mysteries of Neutrinos” and “Reveal[ing] the Secrets of the Higgs Boson.” [32]

“Explore New Paradigms in Physics” though “Search[ing] for Direct Evidence of New Particles and Pursu[ing] Quantum Imprints of New Phenomena.” [32]

“Illuminate the Hidden Universe” through “Determin[ing] the Nature of Dark Matter” and “Understand[ing] What Drives Cosmic Evolution.” [32]

Specific Recommendations

The recommendations that followed the statement of goals reflected the recommendations heard during the Snowmass process and those of the International Benchmarking Panel, discussed above.

In particular, Recommendation 1 stated “As the highest priority independent of the budget scenarios, [funding agencies must] complete construction projects and support operations of ongoing experiments and research to enable maximum science.” [32] This reflects concerns throughout the community of potential abrupt cancellations of ongoing particle physics projects, as flagged by the Benchmarking Panel. The P5 report sought to control the narrative of the DUNE project, which has seen an explosion in cost between the 2014 and 2023 P5 reports and is now lagging behind the competing HyperKamiokande project that will turn on in 2027. [34] P5 offered compromises on beam power for DUNE Phase I and reductions of the DUNE Phase II upgrades to keep the project funding on track to begin data-taking in 2031.

Despite the issues with DUNE, P5 recommended initiating work on a new megaproject called a muon collider. [32] Accelerating and colliding muons for particle physics studies offers theoretical advantages over an electron-positron collider, but represents an untested and challenging new direction from a practical standpoint. The report states: “Although we do not know if a muon collider is ultimately feasible, the road toward it leads from current Fermilab strengths and capabilities to a series of proton beam improvements and neutrino beam facilities, each producing world-class science while performing critical R&D towards a muon collider. At the end of the path is an unparalleled global facility on US soil. This is our Muon Shot.” [32] The cost of a 10 TeV muon collider was not estimated in the report.

The report offered a new emphasis on cosmology and astrophysics as a branch of particle physics. [32] P5 placed the $800M CMB-S4 experiment at the top of the list of new projects. [34] The report also emphasized the importance of the planned expansion of the IceCube neutrino detector in Antarctica, recommending funding for this new project in any budget scenario.

In a recommendation with an unusual level of specifics regarding its implementation, P5 introduced a new program entitled “Advancing Science and Technology through Agile Experiments" (ASTAE). [32] This responds to calls by the community to support “small” experiments, which particle physics defines as costing less than $50M in total. Unlike other programs, this recommendation called for $35M/year to be invested in ASTAE. This recommendation again reflected the concerns identified by the International Benchmarking Panel.

Initial Community Support for the P5 Report

The American Physical Society, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and SLAC Laboratory organized endorsements by the community of the P5 report. [35] As of January 15, the number of endorsers was 2602 US scientists. Among the endorsers, 37% were tenured faculty level or laboratory scientists, 9% were at the untenured faculty or laboratory scientist level, 16% were postdoctoral fellows, 20% were graduate students, and the remainder were other categories. The geographic distribution of the endorsements heavily favored Illinois, home of Fermilab, and California, home of SLAC.

Outcomes

Only six months after the release of the 2023 P5 report, the first and sixth priority new projects, CMB-S4 and IceCube-Gen2, faced major setbacks from a call by NSF to immediately address the urgent need to update the South Pole Station infrastructure. [36] In response, NSF halted the installation of new projects until end of the 2020's. [37] Lack of near-term access to infrastructure at the pole led NSF and DOE to cancel the joint-agency CMB-S4 project, despite strong protest from the P5 leadership and appeals from the 500-person, international team. [38] The IceCube-Gen2 project, planned to begin installation in the latter 2020's, [39] may suffer delays due to the infrastructure renovations.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leon M. Lederman</span> American mathematician and physicist (1922–2018)

Leon Max Lederman was an American experimental physicist who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1988, along with Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger, for research on neutrinos. He also received the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1982, along with Martin Lewis Perl, for research on quarks and leptons. Lederman was director emeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) in Batavia, Illinois. He founded the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, in Aurora, Illinois in 1986, where he was resident scholar emeritus from 2012 until his death in 2018.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Particle physics</span> Study of subatomic particles and forces

Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of fundamental particles and forces that constitute matter and radiation. The field also studies combinations of elementary particles up to the scale of protons and neutrons, while the study of combination of protons and neutrons is called nuclear physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fermilab</span> High-energy particle physics laboratory in Illinois, US

Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), located in Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Linear Collider</span> Proposed linear accelerator for subatomic particles

The International Linear Collider (ILC) is a proposed linear particle accelerator. It is planned to have a collision energy of 500 GeV initially, with the possibility for a later upgrade to 1000 GeV (1 TeV). Although early proposed locations for the ILC were Japan, Europe (CERN) and the USA (Fermilab), the Kitakami highland in the Iwate prefecture of northern Japan has been the focus of ILC design efforts since 2013. The Japanese government is willing to contribute half of the costs, according to the coordinator of study for detectors at the ILC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Collider Detector at Fermilab</span> American experimental physics device (1985–2011)

The Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) experimental collaboration studies high energy particle collisions from the Tevatron, the world's former highest-energy particle accelerator. The goal is to discover the identity and properties of the particles that make up the universe and to understand the forces and interactions between those particles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NOvA</span> Observatory

The NOνA experiment is a particle physics experiment designed to detect neutrinos in Fermilab's NuMI beam. Intended to be the successor to MINOS, NOνA consists of two detectors, one at Fermilab, and one in northern Minnesota. Neutrinos from NuMI pass through 810 km of Earth to reach the far detector. NOνA's main goal is to observe the oscillation of muon neutrinos to electron neutrinos. The primary physics goals of NOvA are:

George Randolph Kalbfleisch was an American particle physicist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">QuarkNet</span> Teacher professional development in sciences

QuarkNet is a long-term, research-based teacher professional development program in the United States jointly funded by the National Science Foundation and the US Department of Energy. Since 1999, QuarkNet has established centers at universities and national laboratories conducting research in particle physics across the United States, and have been bringing such physics to high school classrooms. QuarkNet programs are described in the National Research Council National Science Education Standards report (1995) and support the Next Generation Science Standards (2013).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nigel Lockyer</span> Particle physicist, Fermilab director

Nigel Stuart Lockyer is a British-American experimental particle physicist. He is the current director of the Cornell Laboratory for Accelerator-based ScienceS and Education (CLASSE) as of May 1, 2023. He was the Director of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), in Batavia, Illinois, the leading particle physics laboratory in the United States, from September 2013 to April 2022.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marcela Carena</span> Argentine theoretical physicist

Marcela Silvia Carena Lopez is an Argentine theoretical physicist, and distinguished scientist at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois, where she is also head of the lab's Theory Division. She is also a professor at the University of Chicago, where she is a member of the Enrico Fermi Institute and the Kavli Institute for Cosmological Physics.

The Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) is a neutrino experiment under construction, with a near detector at Fermilab and a far detector at the Sanford Underground Research Facility that will observe neutrinos produced at Fermilab. An intense beam of trillions of neutrinos from the production facility at Fermilab will be sent over a distance of 1,300 kilometers (810 mi) with the goal of understanding the role of neutrinos in the universe. More than 1,000 collaborators work on the project. The experiment is designed for a 20-year period of data collection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mu2e</span> Particle physics experiment

Mu2e, or the Muon-to-Electron Conversion Experiment, is a particle physics experiment at Fermilab in the US. The goal of the experiment is to identify physics beyond the Standard Model, namely, the conversion of muons to electrons without the emission of neutrinos, which occurs in a number of theoretical models. Former project co-spokesperson Jim Miller likens this process to neutrino oscillation, but for charged leptons. The rate for this process in the Standard Model of particle physics is unobservably small, so any observation of this process would constitute a major discovery and indicate new physics beyond the standard model. The experiment will be 10,000 times more sensitive than previous muon to electron conversion experiments, and probe effective energy scales up to 10,000 TeV.

Frederick Joseph Gilman is an American physicist and the Buhl Professor of Theoretical Physics Emeritus at Carnegie Mellon University.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yaşar Önel</span> Turkish-born physicist

Yaşar Önel is a Turkish-born physicist who holds Swiss and American citizenship. He received his Ph.D. in Physics from London University in 1975. He worked at the Queen Mary University of London in the United Kingdom, and Neuchatel and Geneva Universities in Switzerland before joining the University of Texas at Austin in 1986. Then, he moved to the University of Iowa in 1988. He is a tenured faculty professor. of Physics at the University of Iowa in Iowa City, IA, USA.

Janet Marie Conrad is an American experimental physicist, researcher, and professor at MIT studying elementary particle physics. Her work focuses on neutrino properties and the techniques for studying them. In recognition of her efforts, Conrad has been the recipient of several highly prestigious awards during her career, including an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow, a Guggenheim Fellow, and the American Physical Society Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Herman Brenner White</span> American physicist (born 1948)

Herman Brenner White is an American physicist who works at Fermilab. He won the 2010 American Physical Society Edward A Bouchet Award.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kevin T. Pitts</span> American physicist and professor

Kevin T. Pitts is an American high energy particle physicist. In addition to his faculty appointment at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, in 2021 he was appointed chief research officer at Fermilab National Accelerator Laboratory. His research interests have included the CDF experiment and the Muon g-2 experiment at Fermilab.

Stéphane Willocq is an American physicist. He is a professor of physics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and is involved in the upgrade of the muon trigger with MDT chambers for the high luminosity Large Hadron Collider.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bonnie Fleming</span> American physicist

Bonnie T. Fleming is an experimental particle physicist who has held leadership roles in several physics experiments and at Fermilab. Since 2022, she has been Fermilab's chief research officer and deputy director for science and technology. She has also served on the faculty of Yale University and the University of Chicago. Fleming is an expert in neutrino physics and liquid argon time projection chamber detector technology.

The Snowmass Process is a particle physics community planning exercise sponsored by the Division of Particles and Fields of the American Physical Society. During this process, scientists develop a collective vision for the next seven to ten years for particle physics research in the US.

References

  1. ↑ "About P5". Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel (P5). U.S. Particle Physics. Archived from the original on 2014-05-25.
  2. 1 2 "Particle Physics Planning Process Moves Into Final Phase". FYI. American Institute of Physics. 5 December 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  3. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation (2013), [untitled letter to Andrew Lankford] (PDF)
  4. 1 2 3 Report of the Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel (PDF), May 2014
  5. 1 2 Bloom, Ken (May 27, 2014). "P5 and the fifth dimension that Einstein missed". Quantum Diaries. Interactions.org.
  6. ↑ Crawford, Glenn. "DOE Self-Assessment: P5 Implementation" (PDF). High Energy Physics Advisory Panel Meeting May 30–31, 2019. Department of Energy Office of Science. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  7. 1 2 Thomas, Will (December 16, 2020). "Particle Physicists Feel Squeeze From Major Projects". FYI: American Institute of Physics. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  8. ↑ "HEPAP Assessment of Progress on 2014 P5 Report" (PDF). Department of Energy Office of Science. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
  9. ↑ Adrian Cho (March 29, 2022). "Trying to stay ahead of competition, U.S. pares down troubled $3 billion neutrino experiment". Science, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  10. ↑ Bernstein, Maxwell (March 24, 2022). "Straws, crystals and the quest for new subatomic physics". Fermilab News.
  11. ↑ "PIP-II: An international effort breaking new ground in particle physics". Innovation News Network. March 4, 2022.
  12. ↑ Will Thomas (November 17, 2021). "Budget Tensions Compounding in High Energy Physics". FYI, American Institute of Physics.
  13. ↑ Michael Banks (March 1, 2022). "Panel calls on physicists to 'shelve' notion of Japan hosting the International Linear Collider". Physics World, IOP Publishing.
  14. ↑ "Proceedings of the 2021 US Community Study on the Future of Particle Physics". Proceedings of the 2021 US Community Study on the Future of Particle Physics. APS Division of Particles and Fields. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Garisto, Daniel (8 September 2022). "Physicists Struggle to Unite around Future Plans". Scientific American. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Feder, Toni (October 2022). "US particle physicists envision future of the field". Physics Today. Retrieved 27 December 2022.
  17. ↑ Klein, Spencer (12 December 2003). "The Human Cost of the SSC". No. 5652. Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  18. ↑ Feder, Toni (28 September 2022). "US Particle Physicists Look to Future at 'Snowmass' Meeting". No. 65. FYI. American Institute of Physics. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  19. 1 2 "P5 Status". High Energy Physics Advisory Panel December 8–9, 2022 Agenda. US Department of Energy Office of Science. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  20. ↑ "P5 Charge 2022". High Energy Physics Advisory Panel Charges/Reports. US Department of Energy Office of Science. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  21. ↑ "P5 Charge". High Energy Physics Advisory Panel December 8–9, 2022 Agenda. US Department of Energy Office of Science. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  22. 1 2 Garisto, Daniel (16 March 2023). "This Summer, Particle Physicists Will Prioritize Projects for the Field's Future". No. April 2023. American Physical Society. APS News. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
  23. ↑ Thomas, Will (8 September 2022). "Research Infrastructure Initiatives in the CHIPS and Science Act". No. 60. American Institute of Physics. AIP FYI. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
  24. ↑ "P5 Town Hall at LBNL" . Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  25. ↑ "P5 Townhall at Fermilab and Argonne" . Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  26. ↑ "P5 Town Hall Meeting on the Future of High Energy Physics Hosted by Brookhaven National Laboratory" . Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  27. ↑ "P5 Town Hall at SLAC" . Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  28. ↑ "P5 Town Hall: UT Austin" . Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  29. ↑ "P5 Townhall Virginia Tech" . Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  30. 1 2 3 4 Peterson, Andrea (1 December 2023). "Particle Physics Panel Assesses US Influence on Global Stage". American Institute of Physics. AIP FYI. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  31. 1 2 "The Path to Global Discovery: U.S. Leadership and Partnership in Particle Physics: A report from the HEPAP International Benchmarking Subpanel" (PDF). DOE Office of Science, High Energy Physics. DOE Office of Science. Retrieved 3 December 2023.
  32. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Pathways to Innovation and Discovery in Particle Physics Report of the 2023 Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel". US Particle Physics. usparticlephysics.org. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  33. ↑ Overbye, Dennis; Miller, Katrina (7 December 2023). "Particle Physicists Offer a Road Map for the Next Decade - A "muon shot" aims to study the basic forces of the cosmos. But meager federal budgets could limit its ambitions". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 7 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
  34. 1 2 3 Garristo, Daniel (13 December 2023). "Road Map for U.S. Particle Physics Wins Broad Approval". Scientific Amersican. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  35. ↑ "Support the 2023 P5 Report : Statistics". Support the 2023 P5 Report : Statistics. American Physical Society. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  36. ↑ "South Pole Station Master Plan Draft" (PDF). www.nsf.gov. National Science Foundation. Retrieved 28 July 2024.
  37. ↑ MacKensie, Lindsay (15 May 2024). "NSF Delays Cosmic Microwave Background Experiment". FYI. AIP. Retrieved 28 July 2024.
  38. ↑ Cho, Adrian (9 May 2024). "NSF halts South Pole megaproject to probe infant cosmos' growth spurt". Science. AAAS. Retrieved 28 July 2024.
  39. ↑ O'Keefe, Madeleine (26 March 2024). "A harsh environment for life, an ideal environment for research". Symmetry Magazine. Fermilab/SLAC. Retrieved 28 July 2024.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.