Passportization

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Passportization is defined as the mass conferral of citizenship to the population of a particular foreign territory by distributing passports, generally within a relatively short period. [1] [2] [3] This policy has primarily been used by Russian authorities who have provided easy access for persons, usually holders of former Soviet passports, to apply for Russian passports. [4] The basis for these naturalizations is Art. 14 Russian Citizenship Act, amended in 2002, which allows naturalization in a simplified procedure. [5] In particular, the requirement of five years' residence on Russian territory is suspended for former citizens of the Soviet Union, Art. 14 para. 4 Russian Citizenship Act. As the number of Russian passport holders in regions of adjoining nations grows, Russia then invokes its national interest in defending its citizens by promoting the independence or annexation of these regions. [6] This process has been most common in Georgia and Ukraine.

Contents

Georgia

In Georgia this occurred in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, [7] where residents continued to be the citizens of Soviet Union and kept Soviet passports even a decade after the break-up of the Soviet Union. [8] In 2002, a new Citizenship Law of Russia simplified acquisition of citizenship for any citizen of the Soviet Union, regardless current place of residence. In Abkhazia and South Ossetia, Russian nationalist non-governmental organizations such as the Congress of Russian Communities of Abkhazia carried papers to a nearby Russian city for processing so that residents did not need to travel to obtain Russian citizenship. [9] By June 25, 2002, approximately 150,000 Abkhazians had gained Russian citizenship in addition to the 50,000 who already possessed it, with the blessing of authorities in Sokhumi. [8] The Georgian Foreign Ministry denounced the passport allocation as an “unprecedented illegal campaign”. On February 1, 2011, Soviet passports were no longer considered valid for crossing the Russian-Abkhaz border. [10]

In April 2009, the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities stated there was "pressure being exercised on the Georgian population in the Gali District through the limitation of their education rights, compulsory "passportization", forced conscription into the Abkhaz military forces and restrictions on their freedom of movement." [11] An effort to force ethnic Georgians in Abkhazia to take on Abkhaz citizenship was rebuffed in 2009. [12]

Russia's extraterritorial naturalization practice in South Ossetia and Abkhazia since 2002 constitutes an intervention contrary to international law and violates Georgia's territorial sovereignty. [13]

Ukraine

Russia has been naturalizing people in the Ukrainian regions of Donetsk and Luhansk on a large scale since 2019. [14] This became possible after Art. 29 para. 1.1 Russian Citizenship Act was inserted by law of 27 December 2018. This provision empowers the Russian President to establish categories of foreign citizens and stateless persons eligible to apply for Russian citizenship under the simplified procedure. By Decree No. 183 of 24 April 2019, residents of the Donetsk and Luhansk regions became eligible accordingly.

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, forced passportization has also been done against Ukrainians in the occupied parts of the Kherson and Zaporizhzhia oblasts. [15]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Ossetia</span> Partially recognized state in the South Caucasus

South Ossetia, officially the Republic of South Ossetia or the State of Alania, is a partially recognised landlocked country in the South Caucasus. It has an officially stated population of just over 56,500 people (2022), who live in an area of 3,900 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi), with 33,000 living in the capital city, Tskhinvali.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abkhazia conflict</span> 1989–present conflict between Georgia and the partially recognized Abkhazia

The Abkhazia conflict is a territorial dispute over Abkhazia, a region on the eastern coast of the Black Sea in the South Caucasus, at the intersection of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The conflict involves Georgia, the Russian Federation and the Russian-backed self-proclaimed Republic of Abkhazia, which is internationally recognised only by Russia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria; Georgia and all other United Nations members consider Abkhazia a sovereign territory of Georgia. However, as of 2023, Georgia lacks de facto control over the territory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia</span> 1992–1998 removal and flight of Georgians from Abkhazia

The ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia, also known in Georgia as the genocide of Georgians in Abkhazia, refers to the ethnic cleansing, massacres, and forced mass expulsion of thousands of ethnic Georgians living in Abkhazia during both the 1992–1993 and 1998 Wars of Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and their allies. Armenians, Greeks, Russians, and opposing Abkhazians were also killed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georgia–Russia relations</span> Bilateral relations

Contacts between Russia and Georgia date back to the 15th and 16th centuries, and the most important stage started in the 1580s, when the Georgian kingdom of Kakheti and the Russian Empire signed a treaty of alliance in 1587. Relations between the two countries developed vibrantly and culminated in the Treaty of Georgievsk, which established eastern Georgia as a protectorate of Russia. At that time, Georgia saw Russia as a powerful Christian and modernizing neighbor, capable of protecting Georgia from invading Muslim empires and North Caucasian raiders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Abkhazia</span>

The history of Abkhazia, a region in the South Caucasus, spans more than 5,000 years from its settlement by the lower-paleolithic hunter-gatherers to its present status as a partially recognized state.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of Abkhazia</span>

The Republic of Abkhazia is a partially recognized state in the South Caucasus which declared independence from Georgia during the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993). At the time, the Soviet Union had recently collapsed (1991).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prelude to the Russo-Georgian War</span> Events before the 2008 war in Georgia

Though tensions had existed between Georgia and Russia for years and more intensively since the Rose Revolution, the diplomatic crisis increased significantly in the spring of 2008, namely after Western powers recognized the independence of Kosovo in February and following Georgian attempts to gain a NATO Membership Action Plan at the 2008 Bucharest Summit; and while the eventual war saw a full-scale invasion of Georgia by Russia, the clashes that led up to it were concentrated in the breakaway republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, two separatist Georgian regions that received considerable Russian support over the years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russo-Georgian War</span> 2008 conflict between Russia and Georgia

The August 2008 Russo-Georgian War, also known as the Russian invasion of Georgia, was a war waged against Georgia by the Russian Federation and the Russian-backed separatist regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The fighting took place in the strategically important South Caucasus region. It is regarded as the first European war of the 21st century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Background of the Russo-Georgian War</span> Overview of the background of the war

This article describes the background of the Russo-Georgian War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abkhazia</span> Partially recognised state in the South Caucasus

Abkhazia, officially the Republic of Abkhazia, is a partially recognised state in the South Caucasus, on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, at the intersection of Eastern Europe and West Asia. It covers 8,665 square kilometres (3,346 sq mi) and has a population of around 245,000. Its capital and largest city is Sukhumi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia</span>

Abkhazia and South Ossetia are separatist regions of Georgia in the Caucasus. Most countries recognise them as part of Georgia, while Russia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria regard them as independent. Russia's initial recognition of the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia occurred in the aftermath of the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. The government of Georgia considers the republics to be Russian-occupied territories.

The Sochi agreement, also known as the Dagomys Agreements, was a ceasefire agreement ostensibly marking the end of both the South Ossetia War and Abkhazian War, signed in Sochi on June 24, 1992 between Georgia and Russia, the ceasefire with Abkhazia on July 27, 1993.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Abkhazian passport</span> Passport issued to citizens of Abkhazia

The Abkhazian passport is issued to citizens of the Republic of Abkhazia for the purpose of international travel and for the purpose of legal identification within Abkhazia. As Abkhazia is only recognised by Russia, Venezuela, Syria, Nicaragua and Nauru, for all other destinations Abkhazian citizens must use another passport for international travel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gali District, Abkhazia</span> District in Abkhazia

Gali District is one of the districts of Abkhazia. Its capital is Gali, the town by the same name. The district is smaller than the eponymous one in the de jure subdivision of Georgia, as some of its former territory is now part of Tkvarcheli District, formed by de facto Abkhaz authorities in 1995.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South Ossetian passport</span> Passports issued to South Ossetia nationals

South Ossetian passports are issued to inhabitants of South Ossetia for the purpose of international travel and for the purpose of legal identification within South Ossetia. They were first issued on August 15, 2006. Since South Ossetia is only recognised by Russia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Nauru, and Syria, many South Ossetians also have Russian passports, which are more practical for international travel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Georgia–Russia border</span> International border

The Georgia–Russia border is the state border between Georgia and Russia. It is de jure 894 km in length and runs from the Black Sea coast in the west and then along the Greater Caucasus Mountains to the tripoint with Azerbaijan in the east, thus closely following the conventional boundary between Europe and Asia. In 2008 Russia recognised the independence of two self-declared republics within Georgia, meaning that in a de facto sense the border is now split into four sections: the Abkhazia–Russia border in the west, the western Georgia–Russia border between Abkhazia and South Ossetia, the South Ossetia–Russia border and the eastern Georgia–Russia border between South Ossetia and Azerbaijan. At present most of the international community refuse to recognise the independence of the two territories and regard them as belonging to Georgia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Visa policy of Abkhazia</span> Policy on permits required to enter Abkhazia

Visitors to the Republic of Abkhazia must obtain an entry permit unless they are citizens of one of the visa-exempt countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Russian-occupied territories in Georgia</span> Georgian territories occupied by separatist and Russian forces

Russian-occupied territories in Georgia are areas of Georgia that have been occupied by Russia since the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. They consist of the regions of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and the former South Ossetian Autonomous Region of Soviet Georgia, whose status is a matter of international dispute.

Since Abkhazia is only recognised as a sovereign state by a handful of nations, most countries do not accept Abkhaz passports and impose administrative entry restrictions on citizens of Abkhazia.

The events in 2010 in Georgia.

References

  1. ↑ Nagashima, Toru (2019-05-04). "Russia's Passportization Policy toward Unrecognized Republics". Problems of Post-Communism. 66 (3): 186–199. doi:10.1080/10758216.2017.1388182. ISSN   1075-8216. S2CID   158167424.
  2. ↑ Artman, Vincent M. (2013-07-01). "Documenting Territory: Passportisation, Territory, and Exception in Abkhazia and South Ossetia". Geopolitics. 18 (3): 682–704. doi:10.1080/14650045.2013.769963. ISSN   1465-0045. S2CID   144134462.
  3. ↑ Hoffmann, Patrick R. (2022). Völkerrechtliche Vorgaben für die Verleihung der Staatsangehörigkeit. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 147–152. ISBN   978-3-16-161110-0.
  4. ↑ Ganohariti, Ramesh (2020), "Politics of Passportization and Territorial Conflicts", The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–8, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11795-5_182-1, ISBN   978-3-030-11795-5, S2CID   239978550 , retrieved 2021-06-19
  5. ↑ Hoffmann, Patrick R. (2022). Völkerrechtliche Vorgaben für die Verleihung der Staatsangehörigkeit. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. p. 149. ISBN   978-3-16-161110-0.
  6. ↑ Ganohariti, Ramesh (2020), "Politics of Passportization and Territorial Conflicts", The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–8, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11795-5_182-1, ISBN   978-3-030-11795-5, S2CID   239978550 , retrieved 2021-06-19
  7. ↑ "Human Rights in the Occupied Territories of Georgia". Osce.org . Retrieved October 30, 2012.
  8. 1 2 Inal Khashig (2002-06-27). "Abkhaz Rush For Russian Passports". Institute for War & Peace Reporting. Archived from the original on 2014-02-22. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
  9. ↑ "Russian Federation: Legal Aspects of War in Georgia". Library of Congress.
  10. ↑ Anton Krivenuk (2011-02-01). "Abkhaz Rush For Russian Passports". GeorgiaTimes. Archived from the original on 2014-02-22. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
  11. ↑ OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities deeply concerned by recent developments in Abkhazia. OSCE Press Release. 14 April 2009 Archived 24 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ↑ Head of Abkhaz NSC Resigns. Civil Georgia. 18 August 2009
  13. ↑ Hoffmann, Patrick R. (2022). Völkerrechtliche Vorgaben für die Verleihung der Staatsangehörigkeit. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 277–284. ISBN   978-3-16-161110-0.
  14. ↑ Hoffmann, Patrick R. (2022). Völkerrechtliche Vorgaben für die Verleihung der Staatsangehörigkeit. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. p. 149. ISBN   978-3-16-161110-0.
  15. ↑ "Forced passportization in the temporarily occupied territories: why one should not take a Russian passport", VisitUkraine, 14 August 2022
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