Paul Nation

Last updated
Paul Nation
Born (1944-04-28) 28 April 1944 (age 80)
Academic work
Institutions Victoria University of Wellington

Paul Nation (complete name Ian Stephen Paul Nation, born 28 April 1944) is an internationally recognized scholar in the field of linguistics and teaching methodology. [1] As a professor in the field of applied linguistics with a specialization in pedagogical methodology, he has been able to create a language teaching framework to identify key areas of language teaching focus. [2] Paul Nation is best known for this framework, which has been labelled The Four Strands. [3] He has also made notable contributions through his research in the field of language acquisition that focuses on the benefits of extensive reading and repetition as well as intensive reading. [1] Nation's numerous contributions to the linguistics research community through his published work has allowed him to share his knowledge and experience so that others may adopt and adapt it. [4] [5] He is credited with bringing « legitimization to second language vocabulary researches » in 1990. [6] [7] [8]

Contents

Biography

Paul Nation is a member of the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies department at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. [1] He is well known for his research into the methodology of language teaching and vocabulary learning. [1] Nation is employed at Victoria University of Wellington where he currently holds the position of an Emeritus Professor. [1] Previously in his career, Nation instructed courses on "pedagogical grammar, curriculum design, and teaching and learning vocabulary". [9] He has experience with teaching and developing teaching pedagogy around the world in places such as Indonesia, Thailand, the United States, Finland, and Japan. [9]

Nation has been featured on the BBC News along with John Read in an article titled How many words do you need to speak a language?. [10] In addition, Paul has presented his research in numerous self-written works, [11] [12] [4] interviews, [10] and lectures. [13] [5]

== Research == Paul Nation Key concepts of his works are word frequency lists as guidelines to vocabulary acquisition, the learning burden of a word, the need to teach learning strategies to students in order to increase their autonomy in vocabulary expansion for low-frequency items, support to extensive reading of accessible texts (≥95-98% of known words), the usefulness of L2→L1 tools (dictionaries, word cards) for their clarity. After the communicative approach of the 80's, his works have been instrumental for second language courses design and current teaching methods, relying mainly on fast vocabulary acquisition of frequent words. [14] Together with Batia Laufer, James Coady, Norbert Schmitt, Paul Meara, Rebecca Oxford, and Michael Swan, his position is linked to Stephen Krashen's Natural approach (emphasis on frequent grammatical and lexical items first) and to the proposed Lexical approach (emphasis on vocabulary) of language teaching. [15]

The Four Strands

Paul Nation is well known for developing the Four Strands language teaching framework. [16] [17] [4] [18] Paul Nation created the four strands with the intention of establishing a set of guidelines [5] to help language teachers in curating a balanced language learning course curriculum. [17] [16] In this framework, it is recommended that twenty-five percent of class time is spent working on language development from each individual strand. [16] The aim of the four strands is to facilitate the creation of a flexible and well balanced language teaching curriculum. [16] [5]

The four equally important principles of language teaching identified by Paul Nation are as follows:

1. Meaning-focused input [19] [20]

This strand of meaning-focused input supports the development of receptive language skills in second language learners. [17] Reading and listening is heavily focused on in this strand [5] as these activities work to increase receptive language abilities. With this strand Nation draws on Steven Krashen's second language acquisition research which emphasizes the importance of input on second language development. [5] Contrastingly to Krashen's views on comprehension based-instruction, Nation insists that only a quarter [16] [17] [5] of class time should be dedicated to meaning-focused input. During this time, students should be encouraged to engage with the input being presented to them in order to create a deeper understanding of the language material. [5] Activities that utilize meaning-focused input included reading graded readers or listening to podcasts and recordings. [16]

2. Meaning-focused output [21] [22]

This strand of meaning-focused output supports the development of productive skills in second language learners. Language learning activities that support the meaning-focused output strand involve the development of writing and speaking skills [17] where language is being produced by the learner in the learner's second language. Activities that utilize meaning-focused output include free writing in a journal, or telling a story using oral communication. [16] Paul Nation emphasizes the importance of exposing language learners to language output [5] on the grounds that having the opportunity to experiment with the production of a word or phrase strengthens the learner's comprehension of vocabulary. [5] Additionally, the meaning-focused output strand provides language learners with the opportunity to develop discourse skills such as turn-taking and the negotiation of meaning. [17] As with each of the four strands, meaning-focused output should account for one quarter of a course curriculum [16] [5] [17]

3. Language-focused learning [23] [24]

Unlike meaning-focused input and meaning-focused output, language-focused learning requires language learners to pay close attention to the features of the language they are learning. [17] Students engage in the explicit learning of "pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse". [17] Activities that utilize language-focused learning include dictionary searches, memorizing vocabulary, and mimicking correct word pronunciation. [16] Nation suggests that language features being studied in a second language course should occur repeatedly over an extensive length of time in order for learners to effectively retain the information. [17] This strand should be employed in a language learning classroom for one quarter of the time spent in class. [16] [5] [17]

4. Fluency development [25] [26]

The fluency development strand focuses on the practice and mastery of pre-existing language skills in order to develop fluency in the learner's language reception and production skills. [17] [5] This strand encompasses the three strands that come before it as students work to master the listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills that they have acquired previously in their second language acquisition course. [17] No new language items are introduced to learners in this strand, only familiar language items are exposed to the learner. [5] [17] Activities that utilize the fluency development strand include speed reading, repetitive writing and speaking exercises, and watching familiar movies. [16] [17] This strand, along with meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, and language-focused learning should take up no more than one quarter of the allotted class time. [5] [17] [16]

Vocabulary Acquisition

Classroom management is one area of teaching that is not always considered, but can be of great benefit to students when planned effectively. [27] It involves the language used by the teacher when describing activities, controlling student behaviour, and directing students in what they should be doing. [27] According to Nation (2003), it is important that classroom management occurs in the target language, in order for learners to have more consistent exposure to the language. [27] The teacher's role then is to observe and make note of the vocabulary and structures commonly used during classroom management, and compile a list of the most frequently used words or phrases. [27] This list can then be used to form meaningful input for the learners, thereby increasing their exposure and use of the second language. [27]

The first language can have a role in learning a second language when used thoughtfully. [27] If a class consists of learners who share the same first language, some class discussions can be held in that language. Learners are more likely to be engaged in the conversation, and can contribute more than they could in the second language. [27] Often vocabulary from the second language is used during these discussions, resulting in learners retaining more vocabulary in general. [27]

The English language contains many words that have been borrowed or are derived from other languages. [27] Getting students to notice these borrowed words is helpful when acquiring vocabulary in English, because they may be able to make connections between their first language and their second language. [27] Nation (2003) describes the concept of noticing borrowed words as a useful strategy for expanding learners vocabulary. [27]

According to Nation, [28] although explicit vocabulary instruction is necessary for a balanced curriculum, it is not favourable for expanding learners' vocabulary knowledge. Teachers should consider every aspect of a word when teaching new vocabulary, to determine which aspect needs the most focus. Nation characterizes this consideration as a "learning burden". [28]

In terms of language testing, Nation has developed the Vocabulary Levels Test. [29] This test aids teachers in deciding which vocabulary groups require the most attention. It provides an alternate view towards vocabulary within any language, consisting of classifications based on word frequency. [29] It is important to be aware of the distinction between low- and high-frequency words, as both these categories require a different course of action. [29] Nation outlines a criterion which can be used to make the distinction between low- and high-frequency words. This involves examining "frequency of occurrence, coverage of the text, size of the high-frequency group, overlap between various word counts, and the starting point of specialized vocabularies". [29] Nation also describes this test as being one of cost-benefit. [29] Rather than spending time explicitly teaching low-frequency words, teachers should provide various strategies for dealing with these words, such as guessing based on the context surrounding the word, memorization techniques, and learning certain parts of each word. [29]

Extensive Reading

A notable area of methodological contribution from Paul Nation is his research and theory surrounding extensive reading and vocabulary acquisition. [30] Through his 1997 literature review, Nation has determined that in order for extensive reading to be valuable, the proper level of book must be selected for the learner. [30] This creates opportunities for the learner to read many books at their level. [30] [13] He mentions that a book which is deemed the "right fit" for a learner, requires the majority of vocabulary to be already familiar to the reader with a maximum of two unfamiliar words for every 100 words read. [30] [13] Nation suggests that in order for the new vocabulary to remain present and understood in the learners mind, the quality of the meetings with new words must be memorable. [13] [30] Nation then outlines 4 levels of quality meetings with words.

1. Noticing [13]

This is the first level of creating quality meetings. Noticing involves both incidental and deliberate attention. [31] Learners may hypothesize the meaning of new words by attempting to understand the context surrounding the word, or they may search for definitions of new words in a dictionary. [13] Noticing a new word creates a link of meaning which can then lead to the second level, retrieval. [13]

2. Retrieval [13]

Retrieval of a new word allows a learner to draw upon the word that they had previously noticed and then retrieve what they remember about the word such as the context they encountered it in, the meaning, etc. [13] Essentially, retrieval involves taking previously learned words, and applying them for further understanding. [30] [13] One method for getting learners to practice retrieving words is by repeatedly reading a text where the new word appears often. [30]

3. Varied Meetings [13]

The more a new word is encountered, the more familiar the meaning becomes to a learner. [13] This is because meeting a word in various contexts allows one to draw upon previous knowledge of the word/meaning and carry it across contexts. [30] [13] This occurs most often when encountering new words in extensive reading. [13] The key here is that the new words should appear in varying contexts so the learner gains an understanding of the different ways the word is used. [13] [30]

4. Elaboration [13]

Finally, the last level is elaboration. [13] [30] This level suggests the use of graded reading promotion as a simple yet effective way to facilitate extensive reading. [30] [13] This promotion allows readers to then continue reading books a level above where they were reading in order to continue acquiring new vocabulary and encounter previously learned vocabulary in new contexts. [13]

Intensive Reading

Written works

Since 1989, Nation has made several contributions to the Applied Linguistics and teaching methodology communities. [9] These contributions cover topics such as language learning fluency, [32] oral classroom activities, [33] research surrounding receptive vocabulary capabilities [34] and many more. [9] [1] In order to understand the expanse of methodological areas that Nation has been able to address, they will be demonstrated below by their general topics.

Vocabulary

  • Identifying Technical Vocabulary [35]
  • Measuring the Vocabulary Size of Native Speakers of English in New Zealand Secondary Schools [36]
  • Word Meaning in Academic English: Homography in the Academic Word List [37]
  • Teaching Communicative and Interactive Vocabulary for EFL learners[ citation needed ]
  • Teaching and Testing Vocabulary [38]
  • Vocabulary Size Research at Victoria University of Wellington [39]
  • Beyond Single Words: The Most Frequent Collocations in Spoken English [40]

Reading

  • Reading Speed Improvement In a Speed Reading Course and its Effect on Language Memory Span [41]

Methodology

  • Learning to Teach Spanish: Identifying, Inducting, and Supporting Apprentice Teachers in the Ann Arbor Languages Partnership [42]
  • Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning. [43]

Speaking

  • A Vocabulary-Size Test of Controlled Productive Ability Language Testing . [44]
  • Vocabulary Size and Use: Lexical Richness in L2 Written Production [45]
  • Improving Speaking Fluency [32]
  • Speaking Activities: Five Features [33]

General Research

  • Word Families [46]
  • How Large Can a Receptive Vocabulary Be? [34]
  • Introduction: Meara's Contribution to Research in L2 Lexical Processing [47]

With his most notable and numerous literary and methodological contributions falling under the umbrella of vocabulary, it is to no surprise that vocabulary size and methodology is his specialization. [1] [9] It is on this area of acquisition that he typically lectures both classes and the linguistics community on. [9]

Related Research Articles

Language education – the process and practice of teaching a second or foreign language – is primarily a branch of applied linguistics, but can be an interdisciplinary field. There are four main learning categories for language education: communicative competencies, proficiencies, cross-cultural experiences, and multiple literacies.

A vocabulary is a set of words, typically the set in a language or the set known to an individual. The word vocabulary originated from the Latin vocabulum, meaning "a word, name". It forms an essential component of language and communication, helping convey thoughts, ideas, emotions, and information. Vocabulary can be oral, written, or signed and can be categorized into two main types: active vocabulary and passive vocabulary. An individual's vocabulary continually evolves through various methods, including direct instruction, independent reading, and natural language exposure, but it can also shrink due to forgetting, trauma, or disease. Furthermore, vocabulary is a significant focus of study across various disciplines, like linguistics, education, psychology, and artificial intelligence. Vocabulary is not limited to single words; it also encompasses multi-word units known as collocations, idioms, and other types of phraseology. Acquiring an adequate vocabulary is one of the largest challenges in learning a second language.

A heritage language is a minority language learned by its speakers at home as children, and difficult to be fully developed because of insufficient input from the social environment. The speakers grow up with a different dominant language in which they become more competent. Polinsky and Kagan label it as a continuum that ranges from fluent speakers to barely speaking individuals of the home language. In some countries or cultures which determine a person's mother tongue by the ethnic group they belong to, a heritage language would be linked to the native language.

Language transfer is the application of linguistic features from one language to another by a bilingual or multilingual speaker. Language transfer may occur across both languages in the acquisition of a simultaneous bilingual, from a mature speaker's first language (L1) to a second language (L2) they are acquiring, or from an L2 back to the L1. Language transfer is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language. Language transfer is also a common topic in bilingual child language acquisition as it occurs frequently in bilingual children especially when one language is dominant.

Second-language acquisition (SLA), sometimes called second-language learning—otherwise referred to as L2acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. This involves learning an additional language after the first language is established, typically through formal instruction or immersion. A central theme in SLA research is that of interlanguage: the idea that the language that learners use is not simply the result of differences between the languages that they already know and the language that they are learning, but a complete language system in its own right, with its own systematic rules. This interlanguage gradually develops as learners are exposed to the targeted language. The order in which learners acquire features of their new language stays remarkably constant, even for learners with different native languages and regardless of whether they have had language instruction. However, languages that learners already know can have a significant influence on the process of learning a new one. This influence is known as language transfer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vocabulary development</span> Process of learning words

Vocabulary development is a process by which people acquire words. Babbling shifts towards meaningful speech as infants grow and produce their first words around the age of one year. In early word learning, infants build their vocabulary slowly. By the age of 18 months, infants can typically produce about 50 words and begin to make word combinations.

Language teaching, like other educational activities, may employ specialized vocabulary and word use. This list is a glossary for English language learning and teaching using the communicative approach.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Extensive reading</span> Reading longer, easier texts for extended periods of time

Extensive reading (ER) is the process of reading longer, easier texts for an extended period of time without a breakdown of comprehension, feeling overwhelmed, or the need to take breaks. It stands in contrast to intensive or academic reading, which is focused on a close reading of dense, shorter texts, typically not read for pleasure. Though used as a teaching strategy to promote second-language development, ER also applies to free voluntary reading and recreational reading both in and out of the classroom. ER is based on the assumption that we learn to read by reading.

The lexical approach refers to various methods of teaching foreign languages with focus on lexical units of various sizes. On the smaller end, the lexical approach refers to teaching practices where vocabulary learning sets the preliminary ground for further language learning. Paul Nation, Laufer and others have been influential in this field, with various techniques to quickly expand the student's vocabulary mostly via vocabulary list learning. On the longer end, it requires to understand and produce lexical phrases as chunks, as described by Michael Lewis in the early 1990s. Students are there taught to identify frequent language patterns (grammar), as well as to have sets of words at their disposal.

A word list is a list of a language's lexicon within some given text corpus, serving the purpose of vocabulary acquisition. A lexicon sorted by frequency "provides a rational basis for making sure that learners get the best return for their vocabulary learning effort", but is mainly intended for course writers, not directly for learners. Frequency lists are also made for lexicographical purposes, serving as a sort of checklist to ensure that common words are not left out. Some major pitfalls are the corpus content, the corpus register, and the definition of "word". While word counting is a thousand years old, with still gigantic analysis done by hand in the mid-20th century, natural language electronic processing of large corpora such as movie subtitles has accelerated the research field.

Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, also known as MEDAL, is an advanced learner's dictionary first published in 2002 by Macmillan Education. It shares most of the features of this type of dictionary: it provides definitions in simple language, using a controlled defining vocabulary; most words have example sentences to illustrate how they are typically used; and information is given about how words combine grammatically or in collocations. MEDAL also introduced a number of innovations. These include:

A word family is the base form of a word plus its inflected forms and derived forms made with suffixes and prefixes plus its cognates, i.e. all words that have a common etymological origin, some of which even native speakers don't recognize as being related. In the English language, inflectional affixes include third person -s, verbal -ed and -ing, plural -s, possessive -s, comparative -er and superlative -est. Derivational affixes include -able, -er, -ish, -less, -ly, -ness, -th, -y, non-, un-, -al, -ation, -ess, -ful, -ism, -ist, -ity, -ize/-ise, -ment, in-. The idea is that a base word and its inflected forms support the same core meaning, and can be considered learned words if a learner knows both the base word and the affix. Bauer and Nation proposed seven levels of affixes based on their frequency in English. It has been shown that word families can assist with deriving related words via affixes, along with decreasing the time needed to derive and recognize such words.

The main purpose of theories of second-language acquisition (SLA) is to shed light on how people who already know one language learn a second language. The field of second-language acquisition involves various contributions, such as linguistics, sociolinguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and education. These multiple fields in second-language acquisition can be grouped as four major research strands: (a) linguistic dimensions of SLA, (b) cognitive dimensions of SLA, (c) socio-cultural dimensions of SLA, and (d) instructional dimensions of SLA. While the orientation of each research strand is distinct, they are in common in that they can guide us to find helpful condition to facilitate successful language learning. Acknowledging the contributions of each perspective and the interdisciplinarity between each field, more and more second language researchers are now trying to have a bigger lens on examining the complexities of second language acquisition.

Norbert Schmitt is an American applied linguist and Emeritus Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Nottingham in the United Kingdom. He is known for his work on second-language vocabulary acquisition and second-language vocabulary teaching. He has published numerous books and papers on vocabulary acquisition.

The mental lexicon is a component of the human language faculty that contains information regarding the composition of words, such as their meanings, pronunciations, and syntactic characteristics. The mental lexicon is used in linguistics and psycholinguistics to refer to individual speakers' lexical, or word, representations. However, there is some disagreement as to the utility of the mental lexicon as a scientific construct.

The natural approach is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Natural Approach has been used in ESL classes as well as foreign language classes for people of all ages and in various educational settings, from primary schools to universities. It aims to foster naturalistic language acquisition in the classroom setting by emphasizing communication and limiting conscious grammar study and explicit correction of student errors. Efforts are also made to make the learning environment as stress-free as possible, by lowering the affective filter. In the natural approach, language output is not forced, but allowed to emerge spontaneously after students have attended to large amounts of comprehensible language input. Comprehensible input is the content that language learners are exposed to in the target language. Krashen suggests that language learners should be able to understand the comprehensible input provided at their current levels of language acquisition, while also making it as interesting and engaging as possible.

With the amount of bilinguals increasing worldwide, psycholinguists have begun to look at how the brain represents multiple languages. The mental lexicon is a focus of research on differences between monolingual and multilingual brains.

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to second-language acquisition:

Vocabulary learning is the process acquiring building blocks in second language acquisition Restrepo Ramos (2015). The impact of vocabulary on proficiency in second language performance "has become […] an object of considerable interest among researchers, teachers, and materials developers". From being a "neglected aspect of language learning" vocabulary gained recognition in the literature and reclaimed its position in teaching. Educators shifted their attention from accuracy to fluency by moving from the Grammar translation method to communicative approaches to teaching. As a result, incidental vocabulary teaching and learning became one of the two major types of teaching programs along with the deliberate approach.

Complex dynamic systems theory in the field of linguistics is a perspective and approach to the study of second, third and additional language acquisition. The general term complex dynamic systems theory was recommended by Kees de Bot to refer to both complexity theory and dynamic systems theory.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Victoria University. School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies. Staff Directory.
  2. ↑ Nation paul, Yamamoto Azusa (2020-10-30). "Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning . 1: 167–181.
  3. ↑ Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  4. 1 2 3 Newton, Jonathan M.; Nation, I. S. P.; Nation, I. S. P.; Newton, Jonathan (2008-10-15). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. Routledge. ISBN   978-0-203-89170-4.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 "Applying the Four Strands: Dr. Paul Nation Speaks to FSI on Language Learning - YouTube". www.youtube.com. 14 August 2017. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2020-11-02.
  6. ↑ TEFL Interviews 19: Batia Laufer on Vocabulary Acquisition (Podcast). Vol. TEFL Interviews 19: Batia Laufer on Vocabulary Acquisition. The TEFLology Podcast. 2018. Retrieved 2024-04-08– via Youtube.com. (5th minute)
  7. ↑ Nation, I. S. P. (1990). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. NY: Newbury House.
  8. ↑ Leech, David H (1991-06-30). "Teaching and Learning Vocabulary by I.S.P. Nation. New York: Newbury House, 1990. 275 pp". Issues in Applied Linguistics. 2 (1). doi:10.5070/L421005136. ISSN   2379-4542.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Paul Nation". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
  10. 1 2 "How many words do you need to speak a language?". BBC News. 24 June 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
  11. ↑ Nation paul, Yamamoto Azusa (2020-10-30). "Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning . 1: 167–181.
  12. ↑ Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Nation, Paul (20 August 2020). "Extensive Reading and Vocabulary Learning Paul Nation". Youtube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.
  14. ↑ (Horst 2010 , pp. 161)
  15. ↑ (Coady 1997 , pp. 1–17)
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Nation paul, Yamamoto Azusa (2020-10-30). "Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning . 1: 167–181.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  18. ↑ Taylor, Andrew (2004-01-01). "Learning Vocabulary in Another Language I: I.S.P. Nation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001, 477 pp. ISBN 0-521-80092-7 hardback, ISBN 0-521-80498-1 paperback". English for Specific Purposes. 23 (1): 87–90. doi:10.1016/S0889-4906(02)00014-5. ISSN   0889-4906.
  19. ↑ Nation paul, Yamamoto Azusa (2020-10-30). "Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning . 1: 167–181.
  20. ↑ Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  21. ↑ Nation paul, Yamamoto Azusa (2020-10-30). "Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning . 1: 167–181.
  22. ↑ Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  23. ↑ Nation paul, Yamamoto Azusa (2020-10-30). "Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning . 1: 167–181.
  24. ↑ Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  25. ↑ Nation paul, Yamamoto Azusa (2020-10-30). "Applying the Four Strands to Language Learning" (PDF). International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning . 1: 167–181.
  26. ↑ Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Nation, Paul (2003). "The role of the first language in foreign language learning" (PDF). The Asian EFL Journal: 1–8.
  28. 1 2 Nation, Paul. "Teaching Vocabulary" (PDF). The Asian EFL Journal. 7.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Laufer, Batia; Nation, Paul (2016-08-17). "A vocabulary-size test of controlled productive ability". Language Testing. 16: 33–51. doi:10.1177/026553229901600103. S2CID   144516168.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 "The Language Teacher Online 21.5: The Language Learning Benefits of Extensive Reading". jalt-publications.org. Retrieved 2020-10-31.
  31. ↑ Nation, Paul (2020-10-30). "The Four Strands" (PDF). Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching . 1.
  32. 1 2 Nation, Paul (January 1989). "Improving speaking fluency". System. 17 (3): 377–384. doi:10.1016/0346-251X(89)90010-9.
  33. 1 2 Nation, P. (1989-01-01). "Speaking activities: five features". ELT Journal. 43 (1): 24–29. doi:10.1093/elt/43.1.24. ISSN   0951-0893.
  34. 1 2 Goulden, R.; Nation, P.; Read, J. (1990-12-01). "How Large Can a Receptive Vocabulary Be?". Applied Linguistics. 11 (4): 341–363. doi:10.1093/applin/11.4.341. ISSN   0142-6001.
  35. ↑ Chung, Teresa Mihwa; Nation, Paul (June 2004). "Identifying technical vocabulary". System. 32 (2): 251–263. doi:10.1016/j.system.2003.11.008. S2CID   54750518.
  36. ↑ Coxhead, Averil; Nation, Paul; Sim, Dalice (April 2015). "Measuring the Vocabulary Size of Native Speakers of English in New Zealand Secondary Schools". New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies. 50 (1): 121–135. doi:10.1007/s40841-015-0002-3. ISSN   0028-8276. S2CID   55610903.
  37. ↑ Ming-Tzu, K. W. (2004-09-01). "Word Meaning in Academic English: Homography in the Academic Word List". Applied Linguistics. 25 (3): 291–314. doi:10.1093/applin/25.3.291. ISSN   0142-6001.
  38. ↑ Nation, Paul; Chung, Teresa (2009-07-10), Long, Michael H.; Doughty, Catherine J. (eds.), "Teaching and Testing Vocabulary", The Handbook of Language Teaching, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 543–559, doi:10.1002/9781444315783.ch28, ISBN   978-1-4443-1578-3 , retrieved 2020-10-31
  39. ↑ Nation, Paul; Coxhead, Averil (July 2014). "Vocabulary size research at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand". Language Teaching. 47 (3): 398–403. doi:10.1017/S0261444814000111. ISSN   0261-4448. S2CID   146609718.
  40. ↑ Shin, D.; Nation, P. (2007-09-25). "Beyond single words: the most frequent collocations in spoken English". ELT Journal. 62 (4): 339–348. doi:10.1093/elt/ccm091. ISSN   0951-0893.
  41. ↑ Tran, TNY; Nation, Ian (2020-06-22). "Reading speed improvement in a speed reading course and its effect on language memory span". doi:10.26686/wgtn.12543422 . Retrieved 2020-10-31.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  42. ↑ Macalister, John (2013-05-13). Case Studies in Language Curriculum Design: Concepts and Approaches in Action Around the World (1 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203847855. ISBN   978-0-203-84785-5.
  43. ↑ Nation, Ian; Yamamoto, Azusa (2020-06-24). "Applying the four strands". doi:10.26686/wgtn.12552020.v1 . Retrieved 2020-10-31.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  44. ↑ Laufer, Batia; Nation, Paul (January 1999). "A vocabulary-size test of controlled productive ability". Language Testing. 16 (1): 33–51. doi:10.1177/026553229901600103. ISSN   0265-5322. S2CID   144516168.
  45. ↑ Laufer, B.; Nation, P. (1995-09-01). "Vocabulary Size and Use: Lexical Richness in L2 Written Production". Applied Linguistics. 16 (3): 307–322. doi:10.1093/applin/16.3.307. ISSN   0142-6001.
  46. ↑ Bauer, Laurie; Nation, Paul (1993). "Word Families". International Journal of Lexicography. 6 (4): 253–279. doi:10.1093/ijl/6.4.253. ISSN   0950-3846.
  47. ↑ Read, John; Nation, Paul (2009-12-31), "1. Introduction: Meara's Contribution to Research in L2 Lexical Processing", Lexical Processing in Second Language Learners, Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters, pp. 1–12, doi:10.21832/9781847691538-003, ISBN   978-1-84769-153-8 , retrieved 2020-10-31

Sources

Works by Paul Nation

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