Peshtigo fire

Last updated

Peshtigo fire
PeshtigoFireExtend.png
Extent of wildfire damage
Date(s)October 8, 1871;153 years ago (1871-10-08)
Location Peshtigo, Wisconsin
Coordinates 45°03′N87°45′W / 45.05°N 87.75°W / 45.05; -87.75
Statistics
Burned area1,200,000 acres (490,000 ha)
Land useLogging Industry
Impacts
Deaths1,500–2,500 (estimated)
DamageIn excess of $5 million (estimated)
Ignition
CauseSmall embers from slash and burn agriculture were caught up in drafts from unusually high winds during a period of extremely dry drought-like conditions.
Map
USA Wisconsin location map.svg
FireIcon.svg
Usa edcp location map.svg
FireIcon.svg
Two pieces of lumber that survived the fire PeshtigoFireSurvivingLumber.jpg
Two pieces of lumber that survived the fire

The Peshtigo fire was a large forest fire on October 8, 1871, in northeastern Wisconsin, United States, including much of the southern half of the Door Peninsula and adjacent parts of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The largest community in the affected area was Peshtigo, Wisconsin, which had a population of approximately 1,700 residents. The fire burned about 1.2 million acres (490,000 ha) and is the deadliest wildfire in recorded history, [1] with the number of deaths estimated between 1,500 [1] and 2,500. [2] The exact number of deaths is debated. Data from mass graves, both those already exhumed and those still being discovered, show that the death toll of the blaze was most likely greater than the 1889 Johnstown flood [3] death toll of 2,200 people or more. [4]

Contents

Occurring on the same day as the more famous Great Chicago Fire, the Peshtigo fire has been largely forgotten, even though it killed five times as many people. [5] [6]

Nonetheless, several cities in Michigan, including Holland and Manistee (across Lake Michigan from Peshtigo) and Port Huron (at the southern end of Lake Huron), also had major fires on the same day. These fires, along with many other fires of the 19th century had the same basic causes: small fires coupled with unusually dry weather. [7] [8]

Firestorm

Slash-and-burn land management was a common way to clear forest for farming and railroad construction. On the day of the Peshtigo fire, an eastward-moving cold front increased the wind speed and several slash-and-burn fires merged. [9]

A firestorm ensued. In the words of Gess and Lutz, in a firestorm "superheated flames of at least 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit ... advance on winds of 110 miles per hour or stronger. The diameter of such a fire ranges from one thousand to ten thousand feet ... When a firestorm erupts in a forest, it is a blowup, nature's nuclear explosion ... " [10] : 101 

By the time it was over, between 1.2 and 1.5 million acres of land had been burned. [11] In addition to Peshtigo, 16 other communities were destroyed in the fire. [12]

The value of the property and forest that was destroyed in the fire was estimated to be about $5 million US (about $127 million [13] in 2024 dollars). [12] Additionally, 2,000,000 trees, saplings, and animals perished in the fire; this had a devastating economic impact on the area as well. [14]

An accurate death toll has never been determined because all local records were destroyed in the fire. Estimates vary from 1,200 to 2,400 deaths. [15]

The 1873 Report to the Wisconsin Legislature listed 1,182 names of dead or missing residents. [16] In 1870, the Town of Peshtigo had 1,749 residents. [17] More than 350 bodies were buried in a mass grave, as there was no one left to identify them. [7]

Making for the river The Peshtigo Fire showing people seeking refuge in the Peshtigo River.jpg
Making for the river

The Rev. Peter Pernin, in his eyewitness account, states that the prolonged drought at that time combined with the factor of human carelessness were omens of the horrible disaster. He also notes how the fire seemed to jump across the Peshtigo River using the bridges and upward air drafts and burn both sides of the town. [18]

Other survivors reported that the firestorm generated a fire whirl (described as a tornado) that threw rail cars and houses into the air. Many citizens escaped the flames by immersing themselves in the Peshtigo River, wells, or other nearby bodies of water. Some drowned while others succumbed to hypothermia in the frigid river. In one account, a man slit the throats of all his children to spare them from an agonizing death. [9]

At the same time, another fire burned parts of the Door Peninsula; because of the coincidence, some incorrectly assumed that the Peshtigo fire had jumped across the waters of Green Bay into the Door County regions. However, the fire did not jump across the bay. Most likely, the firestorm spread and created a new ground fire in New Franken which then spread and burned everything northward up until Sturgeon Bay. [19]

Comet hypothesis

Speculation since 1883 has suggested that the start of the Peshtigo and Chicago fires on the same day was not coincidental, but that all the major fires in Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin that day were caused by impact of fragments from Biela's Comet. This hypothesis was revived in a 1985 book, [20] reviewed in a 1997 documentary, [21] and investigated in a 2004 paper published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. [22]

Certain behaviors of the Chicago and Peshtigo fires were cited to support the idea of an extraterrestrial cause, such as blue flames (thought to be cometary gases burning) in the basements of houses. [20] However, modern fire theory indicates that the blue color was most likely a product of burning carbon monoxide in the poorly ventilated basements. [23] Additionally, scientists with expertise in the field pointed out that there has never been a credible report of a fire being started by a meteorite. [24] [25]

In any event, no external source of ignition was needed. There were already numerous small fires burning in the area as part of land-clearing operations and similar activities after a tinder-dry summer. [10] [23] All that was necessary to trigger the firestorm, plus the other large fires in the Midwest, was a strong wind from the weather front which had moved in that evening. [9]

Legacy and aftermath

Peshtigo Fire Museum PeshtigoFireMuseumExterior2.jpg
Peshtigo Fire Museum

The wildfire remains the deadliest in the history of the United States. [26]

William B. Ogden, a politician and owner of the factories in Peshtigo, returned to rebuild the town. However, progress was slow and many buildings, including the woodenware factory, never reopened. Today, Peshtigo has roughly 3,500 residents. [2]

The Peshtigo Fire Museum, just west of U.S. Highway 41, has a small collection of fire artifacts, first-person accounts, and a graveyard dedicated to victims of the tragedy. [27] A memorial commemorating the fire was dedicated on October 8, 2012, at the bridge over the Peshtigo River. [28]

The Peshtigo Fire Cemetery was entered into the National Register of Historic Places. [7]

The National Shrine of Our Lady of Good Help, a Marian shrine in Champion, was established at the site of a chapel where Sister Adele Brise and others sheltered from the fire and survived. According to Sister Adele, in October 1859, she had a vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary with a warning, saying "If they do not convert and do penance, my Son will be obliged to punish them." [29] Twelve years later, the fire erupted and many people flocked to the church for safety. The people prayed the rosary, and hours later rain came, which put out the fire. Some of the very few things that survived the Peshtigo Fire were the convent, school, and chapel and five acres of land that had been consecrated to the Virgin Mary. The only animals that survived were those that were brought to the chapel grounds. Following the fire, people had great faith in the chapel and the Virgin Mary because they believe that she had saved them. In the following years, it was claimed that miracles occurred at the chapel. In one account, a blind girl went to the chapel to pray and came out able to see; however, none of these stories have ever been reliably documented. [30]

Tornado Memorial County Park is located on the site of the former community of Williamsonville, a small village in Door County, and is named for the fire whirl which occurred there. Out of 76 residents, only 19 survived, and Williamsonville was never rebuilt. [31] [32] [33]

The combination of topography, geography, wind conditions,and ignition sources that led to the fire is known as the "Peshtigo paradigm". [3] The American and British militaries studied the fire during World War II to learn how to recreate firestorms during bombing campaigns against cities in Germany and Japan. [3] Denise Gess, co-author of Firestorm at Peshtigo, said, "They actually made a 'demo' first, a little scale model of wooden buildings, and studied how you would drop bombs until it created a firestorm. Something that devastating and that hot." [9]

Rutkow (2012) writes that the event prompted almost no change to the practices of the lumber industry or the way settlers approached life in forests. He notes that in the following decades, the rate of industrial logging increased and the amount of forest fires increased throughout the country, with Wisconsin itself experiencing major fires in 1880, 1891, 1894, 1897, 1908, 1910, 1923, 1931, and 1936. The loss of half a million acres a year was not uncommon. [34]

Depiction in media

The Peshtigo Fire is discussed in Season 1, Episode 8, of the television series The Gilded Age when downstairs character Jack is discovered putting flowers on the grave of his mother, who died in the tragedy. [35]

See also

Other October 8, 1871 fires

Other fire disasters in the Great Lakes

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Chicago Fire</span> 1871 conflagration in Illinois, US

The Great Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned in the American city of Chicago during October 8–10, 1871. The fire killed approximately 300 people, destroyed roughly 3.3 square miles (9 km2) of the city including over 17,000 structures, and left more than 100,000 residents homeless. The fire began in a neighborhood southwest of the city center. A long period of hot, dry, windy conditions, and the wooden construction prevalent in the city, led to the conflagration spreading quickly. The fire leapt the south branch of the Chicago River and destroyed much of central Chicago and then crossed the main stem of the river, consuming the Near North Side.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Door County, Wisconsin</span> County in Wisconsin, United States

Door County is the easternmost county in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. As of the 2020 census, the population was 30,066. Its county seat is Sturgeon Bay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firestorm</span> High intensity conflagration

A firestorm is a conflagration which attains such intensity that it creates and sustains its own wind system. It is most commonly a natural phenomenon, created during some of the largest bushfires and wildfires. Although the term has been used to describe certain large fires, the phenomenon's determining characteristic is a fire with its own storm-force winds from every point of the compass towards the storm's center, where the air is heated and then ascends.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peshtigo, Wisconsin</span> City in Wisconsin, United States

Peshtigo is a city in Marinette County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was at 3,420 as of the 2020 census The city is surrounded by the Town of Peshtigo. It is part of the Marinette, WI–MI Micropolitan Statistical Area. Peshtigo is known for being the site of the Peshtigo fire of 1871, in which more than 1,200 people died.

The Thumb Fire took place on September 5, 1881, in the Thumb area of Michigan in the United States. The fire, which burned over a million acres (4,000 km2) in less than a day, was the consequence of drought, hurricane-force winds, heat, the after-effects of the Port Huron Fire of 1871, and the ecological damage wrought by the era's logging techniques. The blaze, also called the Great Thumb Fire, the Great Forest Fire of 1881 and the Huron Fire, killed 282 people in Sanilac, Lapeer, Tuscola and Huron counties. The damage estimate was $2,347,000 in 1881, equivalent to $74,100,455 when adjusted for inflation. The fire sent enough soot and ash up into the atmosphere that sunlight was partially obscured at many locations on the East Coast of the United States. In New England cities, the sky appeared yellow and projected a strange luminosity onto buildings and vegetation. Twilight appeared at 12 noon. September 6, 1881, became known as Yellow Tuesday or Yellow Day because of the ominous nature of this atmospheric event.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Fire of 1910</span> Wildfire in the northwestern United States

The Great Fire of 1910 was a wildfire in the Inland Northwest region of the United States that in the summer of 1910 burned three million acres in North Idaho and Western Montana, with extensions into Eastern Washington and Southeast British Columbia. The area burned included large parts of the Bitterroot, Cabinet, Clearwater, Coeur d'Alene, Flathead, Kaniksu, Kootenai, Lewis and Clark, Lolo, and St. Joe national forests. The fire burned over two days on the weekend of August 20–21, after strong winds caused numerous smaller fires to combine into a firestorm of unprecedented size. It killed 87 people, mostly firefighters, destroyed numerous manmade structures, including several entire towns, and burned more than three million acres of forest with an estimated billion dollars' worth of timber lost. While the exact cause of the fire is often debated, according to various U.S. Forest Service sources, the primary cause of the Big Burn was a combination of severe drought and a series of lightning storms that ignited hundreds of small fires across the Northern Rockies. However, the ignition sources also include human activity such as railroads, homesteaders, and loggers. It is believed to be the largest, although not the deadliest, forest fire in U.S. history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Hinckley Fire</span> 1894 forest fire in Minnesota, U.S.

The Great Hinckley Fire was a conflagration in the pine forests of the U.S. state of Minnesota in September 1894, which burned an area of at least 200,000 acres, including the town of Hinckley. The official death count was 418; the actual number of fatalities was likely higher. Other sources put the death toll at 476.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire whirl</span> Whirlwind induced by and often composed of fire

A fire whirl, fire devil or fire tornado is a whirlwind induced by a fire and often composed of flame or ash. These start with a whirl of wind, often made visible by smoke, and may occur when intense rising heat and turbulent wind conditions combine to form whirling eddies of air. These eddies can contract to a tornado-like vortex that sucks in debris and combustible gases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Shrine of Our Lady of Champion</span> Church in Wisconsin, United States

The National Shrine of Our Lady of Champion, formerly dedicated as the Shrine of Our Lady of Good Help, is a Catholic shrine to Mary, mother of God located within the Diocese of Green Bay in the United States. The chapel is in the Champion section of Green Bay, about 16 miles (26 km) northeast of downtown Green Bay proper. It stands on the site of the reported apparition of Mary to a Belgian-born woman, Adele Brise, in 1859.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cloquet fire</span> Forest fire in Minnesota, United States

The Cloquet Fire was an immense forest fire in northern Minnesota, United States in October 1918, caused by sparks on the local railroads amid dry conditions. The fire left much of western Carlton County devastated, mostly affecting Moose Lake, Cloquet, and Kettle River. Cloquet was hardest hit by the fires; it was the worst natural disaster in Minnesota history in terms of the number of casualties in a single day. It is also the third-deadliest wildfire in recorded history, behind the Peshtigo fire of 1871 and a 1936 wildfire that occurred in Kursha-2.

The Port Huron Fire of October 8, 1871 burned a number of cities including White Rock and Port Huron, and much of the countryside in the "Thumb" region of the U.S. state of Michigan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kursha-2</span> Community in the Central Meshchyora, Ryazan Oblast, Russia; destroyed by a fire in 1936

Kursha-2, named so after a road sign, was an industrial community in the Central Meshchyora, Ryazan Oblast, Russia. It was built soon after the October Revolution for the exploitation of the local forests, and was annihilated by a firestorm on 3 August 1936. The disaster caused more than 1,000 human deaths, making it the second-deadliest wildfire in recorded history, behind only the Peshtigo fire of 1871.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peshtigo Fire Museum</span>

The Peshtigo Fire Museum preserves the heritage of the Peshtigo Fire, which destroyed the city of Peshtigo, Wisconsin and surrounding area on October 8, 1871, killing over 2,000 people. It hosts storytelling, exhibits of artifacts from the fire, displays of the lifestyle at the time of the disaster, and a cemetery to memorialize those who died. The museum is adjacent to the Peshtigo Fire Cemetery, where the charred remains of over 350 people were buried in a mass grave. The cemetery is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The memorial at the cemetery was the first official state historical marker authorized by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

The Great Michigan Fire was a series of simultaneous forest fires in the state of Michigan in the United States in 1871. They were possibly caused by the same winds that fanned the Great Chicago Fire, the Peshtigo Fire and the Port Huron Fire; some believe lightning or even meteor showers may have started the fires. Several cities, towns and villages, including Alpena, Holland, Manistee, and Port Huron, suffered serious damage or were lost. The concurrent Peshtigo Fire in Wisconsin also destroyed several towns in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. In 1881, much more than half of "the Thumb" region was burned over by the Thumb Fire, which followed part of the same path as the 1871 fires.

The Baudette fire, also known as the Spooner–Baudette fire, was a large wildfire on October 7, 1910 that burned 1,200 to 1,450 square kilometres in Beltrami County, Minnesota, including nearly all of the twin towns of Spooner and Baudette. The fire also burned the villages of Graceton, Pitt, Williams, and Cedar Spur, Minnesota. Damage was horrific yet less so in the communities of Zipple, Roosevelt, Swift and Warroad in the U.S. and Stratton, Pinewood, Rainy River, and Sprague across the river in Canada, which also suffered losses. The Town of Rainy River lost its lumber mill, but saved many of the residents of Baudette and Spooner since the residential area was not affected. Their American friends were welcomed into homes where they remained for a very long time as their homes had to be rebuilt, creating a strong bond between the two communities.

The 1987 Black Dragon fire, also known as the 1987 Daxing'anling wildfire, was the deadliest forest fire in the People's Republic of China. The fire broke out in Daxing'anling Prefecture, Heilongjiang on May 6, 1987. It also spread into the Soviet Union. The burning lasted almost a month, when it was finally stopped on June 2, 1987. The fire covered about 10,000 km2 of which 6,500 km2 (2,500 sq mi) was forest; it destroyed 7.3 million hectares of forest, including one-sixth of China's entire timber reserves. About 266 people were wounded and 211 died in the fire, leaving 50,000 homeless. It was one of the largest wildfires ever to occur, and the largest to strike China in over 300 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peter Pernin</span> French missionary priest (1822–1909)

Jean-Pierre Pernin, also known as Peter Pernin in America, was a French Roman Catholic priest, who came to the United States in 1864 as a missionary, working in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. As Catholic pastor of Peshtigo, Wisconsin, he survived the Peshtigo fire on October 8–9, 1871. His survivor's memoir, written originally in French, published simultaneously in English translation, and entitled Le doigt de Dieu est là! / The Finger of God Is There!, is a document important to the history of the fire.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate of Door County, Wisconsin</span>

The climate of Door County, Wisconsin is tempered by Green Bay and Lake Michigan. There are fewer extremely cold days and fewer hot days than in areas of Wisconsin directly to the west. Lake waters delay the coming of spring as well as extend mild temperatures in the fall. Annual precipitation is slightly lower than elsewhere in northern Wisconsin. The county features a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold snowy winters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Fires of 1871</span> Series of 1871 fires in the US

The Great Fires of 1871 were a series of conflagrations that took place throughout the final days of September and first weeks of October 1871 in the United States, primarily occurring in the Midwestern United States. These fires include the Great Chicago Fire, Peshtigo Fire, and Great Michigan Fire. In total, the fires burnt more than 3,000,000 acres of land and killed thousands.

References

  1. 1 2 Biondich, S. (June 9, 2010). "The Great Peshtigo Fire". Shepherd Express . Retrieved November 9, 2011.
  2. 1 2 Knickelbine, Scott (2012). The Great Peshtigo Fire: Stories and Science from America's Deadliest Fire. Wisconsin Historical Society Press. ISBN   978-0870206023.
  3. 1 2 3 Tasker, Greg (October 10, 2003). "Worst fire largely unknown". The Baltimore Sun . Archived from the original on October 1, 2019. Retrieved February 21, 2022.
  4. ↑ "Johnstown Flood: Frequently Asked Questions". National Park Service. October 4, 2018.
  5. ↑ Gibson, Christine (August–September 2006). "Our 10 Greatest Natural Disasters". American Heritage . 57 (4).
  6. ↑ Steele Gordon, John (April–May 2003). "Forgotten Fury". American Heritage . 55 (4).
  7. 1 2 3 "Wisconsin SP Peshtigo Fire Cemetery". catalog.archive.gov. File Unit: National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks Program Records: Wisconsin, 1/1/1964 - 12/31/2013.
  8. ↑ "History of the Peshtigo fire, October 8, 1871". The Peshtigo Times. October 6, 1921. Archived from the original on May 2, 2017. Retrieved August 18, 2023– via Wisconsin Historical Society.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Hemphill, Stephanie (November 27, 2002). "Peshtigo: a tornado of fire revisited". News and Features. Minnesota Public Radio . Retrieved March 30, 2008.
  10. 1 2 Gess, D.; Lutz, W. (2003). Firestorm at Peshtigo: A Town, Its People, and the Deadliest Fire in American History. New York, NY: Macmillan. ISBN   978-0-8050-7293-8. OCLC   52421495.
  11. ↑ Rosenfeld, Everett (June 8, 2011). "Top 10 Devastating Wildfires: The Peshtigo Fire, 1871". Time.
  12. 1 2 Estep, Kim. "The Peshtigo Fire". Green Bay Press-Gazette– via National Weather Service.
  13. ↑ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–" . Retrieved February 29, 2024.
  14. ↑ "Peshtigo Fire". wisconsinhistory.org. August 3, 2012.
  15. ↑ Peshtigo, Wisconsin (United States) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  16. ↑ Wisconsin. Legislature. Assembly (1873). Journal of Proceedings. pp. 167–172. Retrieved August 8, 2013.
  17. ↑ "The Population of Wisconsin (Census of 1870)". loc.gov.
  18. ↑ Pernin 1971
  19. ↑ Skiba, Justin (August 30, 2016). "The Fire That Took Williamsonville". DoorCountyPulse.com.
  20. 1 2 Waskin, Mel (1985). Mrs. O'Leary's Comet: Cosmic Causes of the Great Chicago Fire. Academy Chicago Publishers. ISBN   0897331818.
  21. ↑ Fire From The Sky. YouTube. WTBS. 1997.
  22. ↑ Wood, Robert M. (2004). "Did Biela's Comet Cause The Chicago And Midwest Fires?" (PDF). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 25, 2009. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
  23. 1 2 Bales, R. F.; Schwartz, T. F. (April 2005). "Debunking Other Myths". The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow. McFarland. p. 111. ISBN   978-0-7864-2358-3. OCLC   68940921.
  24. ↑ Calfee, Mica (February 2003). "Was It A Cow Or A Meteorite?". Meteorite Magazine. 9 (1). Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  25. ↑ "Meteorites Don't Pop Corn". NASA Science. NASA. July 27, 2001. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  26. ↑ "forest fires in Wisconsin". Wisconsin Historical Society. August 3, 2012. Retrieved March 1, 2024.
  27. ↑ "Peshtigo Fire Museum". Peshtigo Fire Museum. Retrieved November 16, 2021.
  28. ↑ ""Large Crowd Attends Fire Monument Event." 2012. Peshtigo Times (11 October)". Archived from the original on July 20, 2014. Retrieved October 15, 2012.
  29. ↑ The Story of Adele Joseph Brise & Our Lady of Good Help (PDF). New Franken, WI: National Shrine of Our Lady of Good Help.
  30. ↑ Cipin, Vojtech (2011). "Troubles and Miracles". Shrine of Our Lady of Good Help. Archived from the original on November 27, 2013. Retrieved March 1, 2013.
  31. ↑ Moran, Joseph M.; Somerville, E. Lee (1990). Tornadoes of Fire at Williamsonville, Wisconsin, October 8, 1871 (PDF). Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
  32. ↑ Skiba, Justin (September 2, 2016). "The Fire That Took Williamsonville". Door County Living. Retrieved January 22, 2019.
  33. ↑ Tornado Memorial Park kiosk historical notes, also see p. 19 Archived June 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine of the County C Park and Ride lot panel draft pdf
  34. ↑ Rutkow, Eric (April 24, 2012). American Canopy: Trees, Forests, and the Making of a Nation. New York: Scribner. p. 120. ISBN   978-1-4391-9354-9.
  35. ↑ Bundel, Ani (March 14, 2022). "It's Beach Week in The Gilded Age's penultimate episode". AV Club . Retrieved March 17, 2022.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.