Programmed learning

Last updated

Programmed learning (or programmed instruction) is a research-based system which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety of applied psychologists and educators. [1]

Contents

The learning material is in a kind of textbook or teaching machine or computer. The medium presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. The text is in small steps or larger chunks. After each step, learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then immediately the correct answer is shown. This means the learner at all stages makes responses, and is given immediate knowledge of results. [2] [3]

Anticipating programmed learning, Edward L. Thorndike wrote in 1912:

If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.

— Edward L. Thorndike, Education: A First Book [4] [5]

Thorndike, however, did nothing with his idea. The first such system was devised by Sidney L. Pressey in 1926. [6] [7] "The first... [teaching machine] was developed by Sidney L. Pressey... While originally developed as a self-scoring machine... [it] demonstrated its ability to actually teach." [8]

Later developments of programmed learning

In World War II, with largely conscript armies, there was great emphasis on training. What was learnt influenced education and training after the war. One of the main methods was the use of film as a group training method. Research on the effectiveness of training films was done extensively. [9] [10] [11] [12] In one account, Lumsdaine comments that research on films went on "from about 1918 to the present" (meaning 1962). [13]

A few conclusions stood out from the research. First, films were great at giving overviews of a situation or an operation. However, they were less successful at getting over the details. Some general features of film (and, later, television) stand out. One is that a film goes at its own pace. Another is that no specific responses or activities are required from the viewer. A third is that the audience is varied, sometimes hugely varied. This gives clues to ways of improving instructional films.

In a 1946 experiment at Yale University, questions for students were put between segments of a film on the heart and circulation, with correct answers given after students had responded (knowledge of results). This added significantly to the amount learnt from the film. Lumsdaine commented that showing the version with questions and answers was as effective as showing the film twice, and faster. [1] 612 [14]

The connections between this experiment and those of Pressey were obvious. Active responses by learners and helpful feedback on the activities were now seen as critical elements in any successful system of learning. Pressey's work had been half forgotten, but it was now recognised as significant. [15]

Programmed learning arrives

What is programmed learning?

If so much research had already been done on learning from films, what exactly did programmed learning add? The short answer is "stimulus control", by which is broadly meant the teaching material itself. Also, in programmed learning, a complete system was proposed which included these stages: [16] [17]

  1. The aims of the course are stated in terms which are objective, and can be measured.
  2. A pre-test is given, or the initial behaviour is stated.
  3. A post-test is provided.
  4. The materials have been tried out and revised according to results (developmental testing).
  5. The materials are constructed according to a predetermined scheme (stimulus control).
  6. The material is arranged in appropriate steps.
  7. The learner has to respond actively (not necessarily overtly).
  8. Arrangements are made for responses to be confirmed (knowledge of results).
  9. The teaching medium is appropriate for the subject-matter and the students.
  10. The materials are self-paced or presented in a manner which suits the learner.

A helpful discussion of the different programming techniques was given by Klaus. [18]

The two main systems of programmed learning

Although there were three or four other systems proposed, we discuss here the two best-known methods.

One was by Norman Crowder, a psychologist with the U.S. Air Force. He had been asked to investigate the training of aircraft maintenance men. [19] Crowder's system was to set multiple choice questions in the text, and provide feedback for each of the alternatives. [20] [21] [22] Examples of this method show that the alternatives offered in questions were chosen to cover mistakes which students were likely to make. [3] [19] Crowder's system, which he called "intrinsic programming", was better known as "branching programming" on account of its multiple-choice alternatives.

Much better known was the other style of programmed learning, as proposed by the behaviourist B.F. Skinner. Skinner made some very effective criticisms of traditional teaching methods. [23] His scheme of programmed instruction was to present the material as part of a "schedule of reinforcement" in typical behaviourist manner. The programmed text of Skinner's theory of behaviorism is the most complete example of his ideas in action. [24] Skinner's system was generally called "linear programming" because its activities were placed in otherwise continuous text. Skinner was a wonderful publicist for his own ideas, as can be seen from this passage:

"There is a simple job to be done. The task can be stated in concrete terms. The necessary techniques are known. The equipment can easily be provided. Nothing stands in the way except cultural inertia... We are on the threshold of an exciting and revolutionary period in which the scientific study of man will be put to work in man's best interests. Education must play its part. It must accept the fact that sweeping revision of educational practice is possible and inevitable...". [25]

Both methods were originally presented in machines, and both were later presented in book form. Both systems were to an extent student centered. They were ways of teaching individual learners who worked at their own pace. Both systems (in different ways) used knowledge of results to promote learning. [1] p619 [26] In both systems the content was pre-tested to identify problems and iron them out. Both systems emphasised clear learning objectives. Progress in learning was measured by pre- and post-tests of equivalent difficulty. Many practical tests showed the effectiveness of these methods. [27]

Later effects

Many of these ideas were picked up and used in other educational fields, such as open learning (see the Open University) and computer-assisted learning. [28] [29]

Programmed learning ideas influenced the Children's Television Workshop, which did the R&D for Sesame Street . The use of developmental testing was absolutely characteristic of programmed learning. The division of the individual programs into small chunks is also a feature of programmed learning. [30] [31]

Even more is this true of Blue's Clues . [32] [33] Unlike Sesame Street, which tested a third of its episodes, [34] the Blue's Clues research team field tested every episode three times with children aged between two and six in preschool environments such as Head Start programs, public schools, and private day care centers. There were three phases of testing: content evaluation, video evaluations, and content analysis. [33] 182 Their tests of the pilot, conducted throughout New York City with over 100 children aged from three to seven, [32] 21 showed that the attention and comprehension of young viewers increased with each repeat viewing. [34]

Learning or training?

The terms "programmed learning" and "programmed training" were interchangeable, because the principles and methods were almost identical. [35] If the target audience was industrial or military, researchers used the term programmed training, because training budgets supported the work. But in schools and colleges, the work was often described as programmed learning.

Many accounts used either or both terms according to which interest was paying for the work. Sometimes researchers used both terms as explicit alternatives. [36] Some surveys standardised on using just one of the terms. [37]

Perhaps the only distinction was the way the "terminal behaviours" (the final test demonstrating what the learner had learnt) were arrived at. In training, the goals were decided by a process called task analysis, [38] or critical incident technique. This was based on the key activities which a trained person should be able to do. In educational work, deciding on the terminal test was not so securely grounded. One school of thought, probably the majority, decided to turn the rather vague statements of educational aims into full-fledged behavioural statements of the kind "At the end of this program, students should be able to do the following...". [39] A pamphlet by Robert Mager was influential because it showed how to do this. [40] This worked well with some subject matters, but had its limitations. [41] In general, educators have reservations as to how far a list of behaviours captures what they are trying to teach. Subjects differ greatly in their basic aims, but where programmed learning suited a topic, most field trials gave positive results.

Examples

Daily Oral Language and the Saxon method , a math programme, are specific implementations of programmed instruction which have an emphasis on repetition. [42]

Well-known books using programmed learning include the Lisp/Scheme text The Little Schemer, [43] Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess , [44] and Laplace Transform Solution Of Differential Equations: A Programmed Text, by Robert D. Strum and John R. Ward of the Naval Postgraduate School. [45] Several available foreign language reading textbooks also use programmed learning. [46] [47] [48]

Recently, the application of programmed instruction principles was applied to training in computer programs. [49] [50] [51]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Educational psychology</span> Branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning

Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of human learning. The study of learning processes, from both cognitive and behavioral perspectives, allows researchers to understand individual differences in intelligence, cognitive development, affect, motivation, self-regulation, and self-concept, as well as their role in learning. The field of educational psychology relies heavily on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities related to instructional design, classroom management, and assessment, which serve to facilitate learning processes in various educational settings across the lifespan.

An instructional theory is "a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop." It provides insights about what is likely to happen and why with respect to different kinds of teaching and learning activities while helping indicate approaches for their evaluation. Instructional designers focus on how to best structure material and instructional behavior to facilitate learning.

Instructional design (ID), also known as instructional systems design (ISD), is the practice of systematically designing, developing and delivering instructional materials and experiences, both digital and physical, in a consistent and reliable fashion toward an efficient, effective, appealing, engaging and inspiring acquisition of knowledge. The process consists broadly of determining the state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in the transition. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models but many are based on the ADDIE model with the five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">English as a second or foreign language</span> Use of English by speakers with different native languages

English as a second or foreign language is the use of English by speakers with different native languages. Language education for people learning English may be known as English as a foreign language (EFL), English as a second language (ESL), English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), English as an additional language (EAL), or English as a New Language (ENL).

Educational assessment or educational evaluation is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data on the knowledge, skill, attitudes, aptitude and beliefs to refine programs and improve student learning. Assessment data can be obtained from directly examining student work to assess the achievement of learning outcomes or can be based on data from which one can make inferences about learning. Assessment is often used interchangeably with test, but not limited to tests. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community, a course, an academic program, the institution, or the educational system as a whole. The word 'assessment' came into use in an educational context after the Second World War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Constructivism (philosophy of education)</span> Philosophical viewpoint about the nature of knowledge; theory of knowledge

Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse, integrating new information with what they already know. For children, this includes knowledge gained prior to entering school. It is associated with various philosophical positions, particularly in epistemology as well as ontology, politics, and ethics. The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Robert Glaser was an American educational psychologist, who has made significant contributions to theories of learning and instruction. The key areas of his research focused on the nature of aptitudes and individual differences, the interaction of knowledge and skill in expertise, the roles of testing and technology in education, and training adapted to individual differences. Glaser has also been noted for having developed the idea of individually prescribed instruction as well as making major contributions to the theory of adaptive education.

A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, automation, and delivery of educational courses, training programs, materials or learning and development programs. The learning management system concept emerged directly from e-Learning. Learning management systems make up the largest segment of the learning system market. The first introduction of the LMS was in the late 1990s. Learning management systems have faced a massive growth in usage due to the emphasis on remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

This is an index of education articles.

Educational technology is the combined use of computer hardware, software, and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning. When referred to with its abbreviation, edtech, it often refers to the industry of companies that create educational technology.

Ann Lesley Brown (1943–1999) was an educational psychologist who developed methods for teaching children to be better learners. Her interest in the human memory brought Brown to focus on active memory strategies that would help enhance human memory and developmental differences in memory tasks. Her realization that children's learning difficulties often stem from an inability to use metacognitive strategies such as summarizing led to profound advances in educational psychology theory and teaching practices.

Mastery learning is an instructional strategy and educational philosophy, first formally proposed by Benjamin Bloom in 1968. Mastery learning maintains that students must achieve a level of mastery in prerequisite knowledge before moving forward to learn subsequent information. If a student does not achieve mastery on the test, they are given additional support in learning and reviewing the information and then tested again. This cycle continues until the learner accomplishes mastery, and they may then move on to the next stage.

Constructivist teaching is based on constructivist learning theory. Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving information.

An intelligent tutoring system (ITS) is a computer system that aims to provide immediate and customized instruction or feedback to learners, usually without requiring intervention from a human teacher. ITSs have the common goal of enabling learning in a meaningful and effective manner by using a variety of computing technologies. There are many examples of ITSs being used in both formal education and professional settings in which they have demonstrated their capabilities and limitations. There is a close relationship between intelligent tutoring, cognitive learning theories and design; and there is ongoing research to improve the effectiveness of ITS. An ITS typically aims to replicate the demonstrated benefits of one-to-one, personalized tutoring, in contexts where students would otherwise have access to one-to-many instruction from a single teacher, or no teacher at all. ITSs are often designed with the goal of providing access to high quality education to each and every student.

E-learning theory describes the cognitive science principles of effective multimedia learning using electronic educational technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Teaching machine</span>

Teaching machines were originally mechanical devices that presented educational materials and taught students. They were first invented by Sidney L. Pressey in the mid-1920s. His machine originally administered multiple-choice questions. The machine could be set so it moved on only when the student got the right answer. Tests showed that learning had taken place. This was an example of how knowledge of results causes learning. Much later, Norman Crowder developed the Pressey idea further.

Adaptive learning, also known as adaptive teaching, is an educational method which uses computer algorithms as well as artificial intelligence to orchestrate the interaction with the learner and deliver customized resources and learning activities to address the unique needs of each learner. In professional learning contexts, individuals may "test out" of some training to ensure they engage with novel instruction. Computers adapt the presentation of educational material according to students' learning needs, as indicated by their responses to questions, tasks and experiences. The technology encompasses aspects derived from various fields of study including computer science, AI, psychometrics, education, psychology, and brain science.

Sidney Leavitt Pressey was professor of psychology at Ohio State University for many years. He is famous for having invented a teaching machine many years before the idea became popular.

Arthur Allen Lumsdaine (1913–1989) was an American applied psychologist who researched the use of media and programmed learning. Lumsdaine served in the U.S. Army in World War II. He was recruited by Carl Hovland, who was then Chief Psychologist and Director of Experimental Studies for the Research Branch of the Information and Education Division of the U.S. War Department. Lumsdaine later took a PhD in psychology at Stanford University.

Knowledge of results is a term in the psychology of learning. A psychology dictionary defines it as feedback of information:

References

  1. 1 2 3 Lumsdaine A.A. 1963. Instruments and media of instruction. In N.L. Gage (ed) Handbook of research on teaching. Chicago: AERA and Rand McNally, 583–682.
  2. ↑ Margulies S. & Eigen L.D. 1961. Applied programmed instruction. New York: Wiley.
  3. 1 2 Markle S.M. 1969. Good frames and bad: a grammar of frame writing. 2nd ed, New York: Wiley, Chapters 1 & 4.
  4. ↑ Thorndike E.L. 1912. Education: a first book. New York: Macmillan, 165.
  5. ↑ McNeil S. A hypertext history of instructional design
  6. ↑ Pressey S.L. 1926. A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores – and teaches. School & Society23, 373–6.
  7. ↑ Pressey, S.L. 1927. A machine for automatic teaching of drill material. School & Society25, 544–552.
  8. ↑ Hilgard E.R. 1966. Learning & the technology of instruction. Chapter 16 in Hilgard E.R. & Bower G.H. 1966. Theories of learning. 3rd ed, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, p554–561 Programmed learning.
  9. ↑ Lumsdaine A.A. 1947. Experimental research and the improvement of teaching films. Educational Screen26, 254/5.
  10. ↑ Hovland C.I; Lumsdaine A.A. & Sheffield F.D. 1949. Experiments on mass communication. Princeton University Press.
  11. ↑ Lumsdaine A.A. 1953. Audio-visual research in the U.S. Air Force. AV Communication Review1, 76–90.
  12. ↑ May M.A. & Lumsdaine A.A. 1958. Learning from films. Yale University Press.
  13. ↑ Lumsdaine A.A. 1962, published 1965. Experimental research on instructional devices and materials. In Glaser R. (ed) Training research and education. New York: Wiley, 252; 256.
  14. ↑ Lumsdaine A.A; May M.A. & Hadsell R.S. 1958. Questions spliced into a film for motivational and pupil participation. In May M.A. & Lumsdaine A.A. Learning from films. Yale University Press, 72–83.
  15. ↑ Pressey's work is reprinted in Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960. Teaching machines and programmed learning I: a source book. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
  16. ↑ Adjusted from Unwin D. 1967. The changing concept of programmed material criteria for categorisation. In Tobin M.J. (ed) Problems and methods in programmed learning I. National Centre for Programmed Learning, Birmingham.
  17. ↑ Leith G.O.M. 1966. Survey of programmed learning. Visual Education Year Book. NCAVAE.
  18. ↑ Klaus D.J. 1965. An analysis of programming techniues. In Glaser R. (ed) 1965. Teaching machines and programmed learning II. Washington D.C. Department of Audiovisual Instruction, National Education Association of the United States.
  19. 1 2 Rowntree D. 1966. Basically branching. London: Macdonald, p5 & examples in text.
  20. ↑ Crowder N. [1954]. Intrinsic programming. U.S. Industries.
  21. ↑ Crowder N. 1959. Automatic tutoring by means of intrinsic programming. In Galanter E.H. (ed) Automatic teaching: the state of the art. New York: Wiley, 109–116.
  22. ↑ Crowder Norman A. 1960. Automatic tutoring by intrinsic programming. In Lumsdaine A.A & Glaser R. (eds) 1960. Teaching machines and programmed learning I: a source book. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
  23. ↑ Skinner B.F. 1965. The technology of teaching. Appleton-Century-Croft. Includes reprints of his papers on programmed learning.
  24. ↑ Holland J.G. & Skinner B.F. 1961. The analysis of behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  25. ↑ Skinner B.F. 1954. The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review24, 86.
  26. ↑ Annett J. 1964. The role of knowledge of results in learning: a survey. In Educational Technology, De Cecco (ed), Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 279–285.
  27. ↑ Glaser R. (ed) 1965. Teaching machines and programmed learning II: data and directions. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
  28. ↑ Pritchard, Alan 2009. Ways of learning: learning theories and learning styles in the classroom. London: Taylor & Francis, 2nd ed. ISBN   978-0-415-46608-0
  29. ↑ Rowntree D. 1990. Teaching through self-instruction: how to develop open learning material. London: Kogan Page, 2nd ed. ISBN   1-85091-957-7; USA: ISBN   0-89397-356-4
  30. ↑ Lesser, Gerald S. 1974. Children and television: lessons from Sesame Street. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN   0-394-71448-2
  31. ↑ Fisch, Shalom M. & Bernstein, Lewis 2001. Formative research revealed: methodological and process issues in formative research". In Fisch, Shalom M. & Truglio, Rosemarie T. (eds) "G" is for Growing: thirty years of research on children and Sesame Street. Mahweh, New Jersey: Erlbaum, 40. ISBN   0-8058-3395-1
  32. 1 2 Tracy, Diane. 2002. Blue's Clues for success: the 8 secrets behind a phenomenal business. New York: Kaplan Publishing. ISBN   0-7931-5376-X
  33. 1 2 Anderson, Daniel R. et al. 2000. Researching Blue's Clues: viewing behavior and impact. Media Psychology2 (2): 179–194. doi:10.1207/S1532785XMEP0202 4
  34. 1 2 Gladwell, Malcolm 2000. The tipping point: how little things can make a big difference. New York: Little, Brown, 125/7. ISBN   0-316-31696-2
  35. ↑ Glaser, Robert 1964. Implications of training research for education. In Hilgard E.R. (ed) Theories of learning and instruction: the 63rd yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. NSSE, p153/181.
  36. ↑ Lumsdaine A.A. 1964. Educational technology, programmed learning and instructional science. In Hilgard E.R. (ed) Theories of learning and instruction: the 63rd yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. NSSE, p382.
  37. ↑ Hanson L.F. & Komoski P.K. School use of programmed instruction; and Shoemaker H.A. & Holt H.O. The use of programmed instruction in industry. In Glaser R. (ed) 1965. Teaching machines and programmed learning II: data and directions. Washington D.C. National Education Association of the United States.
  38. ↑ Miller, Robert B. 1962. Analysis and specification of behavior for training. In Glaser R. (ed) Training research and education. New York: Wiley, 31–63.
  39. ↑ Popham W.J. & Baker E.L. 1970. Establishing instructional goals. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall.
  40. ↑ Mager, Robert F. 1962. Preparing instructional objectives. Palo Alto CA: Fearon; 1997 edition by Atlanta, GA: The Center for Effective Performance. ISBN   1879618036
  41. ↑ Macdonald-Ross M. 1973. Behavioural objectives – a critical review. Instructional Science2, 1–52.
  42. ↑ Jones, Susan J. (2003) Blueprint for student success: a guide to research-based teaching practices, K-12 Corwin Press, Thousand Oaks, California, page 105, ISBN   0-7619-4697-7
  43. ↑ Friedman, Daniel and Felleisen, Matthias (1996) The Little Schemer MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, ISBN   0-262-56099-2
  44. ↑ Fischer, Bobby; Margulies, Stuart and Mosenfelder, Donn (1966) Bobby Fischer Teaches Chess Bantam Books, New York, ISBN   0-553-26315-3; and various editions since
  45. ↑ Strum, Robert D.; Ward, John R. (1968). Laplace Transform Solution Of Differential Equations: A Programmed Text. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN   9780135228050.
  46. ↑ Tatham, Karl C. Sandberg, Eddison C. (1972). French for reading. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN   9780133316032.
  47. ↑ Wendel, John R.; Sandberg, Karl C. (1973). German for reading : a programmed approach for graduate and undergraduate reading courses. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN   9780133540192.
  48. ↑ Franco, Fabiola; Sandberg, Karl C. (1998). Spanish for reading : a self-instructional course. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Barron's Educational Series. ISBN   9780764103339.
  49. ↑ Emurian H.H. (2007). "Programmed instruction for teaching Java: consideration of learn unit frequency and rule-test performance" (PDF). The Behavior Analyst Today (entire issue). 8 (1): 70–88. doi:10.1037/h0100103. hdl: 11603/276 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-06. Retrieved 2015-09-10.
  50. ↑ Emurian H.H. (2009), "Teaching Java: managing instructional tactics to optimize student learning", International Journal of Information & Communication Technology Education (PDF), vol. 3, UMBC, pp. 34–49.
  51. ↑ Emurian H.H; Holden H.K. & Abarbanel R.A. (2008), "Managing programmed instruction and collaborative peer tutoring in the classroom: applications in teaching Java", Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 24, pp. 576–614.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.