The term "Pariah" originates from the Tamil word meaning "outcast"[2], which the British used to refer to stray dogs typically living on the outskirts of villages in India.[3] The first recorded use of the term "yellow pariah dog" was by Rudyard Kipling in The Jungle Book.
Many kennel clubs now prefer the term primitive dog[it] to describe dogs of the pariah type, reflecting their close resemblance to early domesticated dogs.[4] The Primitive and Aboriginal Dogs Society reclassifies Pariah Dogs as INDogs and categorizes them as a subgroup of primitive and aboriginal dogs[it].[5]
Definition
According to Matthew E. Gompper from the University of Missouri, USA, a possible definition of the Indian Pariah Dog or village dog is as follows: "A subset of free-roaming village dogs, typical of the Indian subcontinent, representing an ancient or primitive dog morphotype. Their morphological, geographical, and evolutionary origins for classification have not yet been well-defined and require further study."[6]
India hosts large populations of these village dogs, with significant numbers and a wide variety of indigenous breeds.[6] Archaeological research suggests that Indian Pariah Dogs date back at least 4,500 years.[7]
In India, Pariah Dogs are known by various names such as Nedi Kukur, Deshi Kukur, Deshiya Naayi, Deshi Kutra, Theruvu Naai, Deshi Kutta, Theru Naai, Deshi Kukura, Veedhi Kukka, and Deshi Kutro. In Bangladesh, they are referred to as Nedi Kukur and Deshi Kukur.[8] More recently, they are commonly called INDogs.[9]
The definition of "village" is quite vague, as a village can range from a few hundred homes to tens of thousands. Thus, categorizing village or Pariah Dogs is challenging. Generally, these dogs share the characteristic of not being confined but being closely associated with human dwellings. Another factor to consider is that dogs in larger villages depend entirely on humans for food (both waste and otherwise) and rarely leave the village.[10] In contrast, in smaller villages, these dogs have opportunities to interact with wildlife, potentially increasing such interactions.[10]
Two categories of dogs are excluded from this definition:
dingoes, which are independent of human subsidies or interactions, primarily found in Australia and limited by human persecution;
working dogs, which are specifically bred and trained to interact with wildlife, used in hunting wild animals or protecting domestic ungulates (sheep, cattle, etc.) from wildlife.
Historical image of an Indian Pariah Dog (first on the left)
Archaeological remains from ancient China and the excavations at Pompeii have revealed fossilized remains strikingly similar to modern INDogs.[4] In India, pariah-type dogs lived in human settlements as early as 4,500 years ago, and possibly earlier, with no known evidence of interruptions in their reproductive continuity. Thus, modern INDogs are direct descendants of these ancient dogs.
Zoological findings from Mohenjo-daro include an intriguing dog skull closely resembling the skulls of modern Pariah Dogs or INDogs.[9] Furthermore, it seems highly likely that the dogs of Anau and Mohenjo-Daro, as well as the dingo of Australia and the Indian Pariah Dog, share a common ancestry.[11]
Recent scientific research using microsatellite typing, phylogenetic analysis, and genetic clustering methods to differentiate dog breeds suggests that modern breeds with the closest genetic relationship to wolves and early Pariah Dogs include breeds from Africa, the Middle East, the Arctic, and Asia, such as indigenous Japanese breeds.[12][13]
In industrialized countries, many dogs live as human companions, creating a clear distinction between "owned" dogs and strays, with the term "stray" often viewed as an anomaly. In contrast, in many regions of the world, particularly in Africa and poorer parts of Asia, the situation is more complex and mixed. Generally, four types of dog-human relationships are identified:
Partially dependent and unrestricted: village or Pariah Dogs (Africanis and similar Asian breeds).
Fully dependent and partially restricted: stray dogs.
Fully dependent and fully restricted: family dogs and working dogs.
Characteristics
Stray or Pariah Dogs, Canis lupus familiaris, are an integral part of the human environment in India and many other countries. They lead a scavenger's life, relying on human waste for survival and rarely hunting. These dogs are generally docile and friendly, with their rare interactions with humans typically submissive. They pose no threat to human well-being, and proper waste management and a tolerant or friendly attitude toward these dogs can ensure peaceful coexistence with human populations.[14]
Pariah Dogs may live in packs, pairs, or lead solitary lives. They reproduce once a year between August and January.[4] In cynology, Pariah Dogs form a distinct group and should not be mistakenly identified with "stray dogs," as is often done.[15]
Research indicates that Indian Pariah Dogs are the progenitors of other Indian breeds such as the Rajapalayam, Kombai, Kanni, and Chippiparai.[7] It has been found that Pariah Dogs from India, Southeast Asia, Pacific islands, and Australia share more similarities with each other than with modern domestic dogs. Pariah Dogs exhibit remarkable uniformity across continents, characterized as small to medium-sized, short-haired dogs with a rectangular, proportionate build, typically light brown or light brown and white.
This suggests that Pariah Dogs have undergone natural convergent evolution, resulting in hardy organisms with minimal nutritional and biological needs, optimally adapted to their ecological niche. This niche exists on the margins of human societies and settlements. Their ecological niche competes with other wild canids such as jackals, badgers, and cats, but does not interfere with larger carnivores like leopards and tigers.[16]
In large urban areas, Pariah Dogs are habitual scavengers at landfills, where they find abundant, albeit low-quality, food. This has led to their selection for smaller, less robust builds compared to wolves. Unlike wolves, they do not hunt in packs and do not have a single estrus cycle. Puppies are weaned after 8–10 weeks, and parental care is minimal, with high competition within packs. Interactions between Pariah Dogs and humans are frequent from puppyhood, and they are sometimes adopted for guarding homes.[17]
Due to hybridization with feral and stray dogs, pure Pariah Dog bloodlines are disappearing. As a result, international cynology has begun cataloging and classifying pure Pariah Dog lines.
Health Aspects
World map of rabies in 2012
Neonatal mortality among village dog puppies is very high, reaching up to 73% in a study conducted on Bolivian dogs.[18] This mortality is due to zoonotic causes related to micro and macroparasites. In contrast, after one year of age, mortality in these dogs is more commonly caused by traumatic injuries related to human activities, both direct (killings) and indirect (accidents). Compared to fully wild dogs (such as dingoes), the presence and proximity of humans provide village dog populations with greater protection in terms of food and environmental safety, promoting their population growth.[7]
Their high numbers near human settlements and interactions with humans can lead to the transmission of diseases from humans to the wildlife these dogs interact with and vice versa (zoonoses). They serve as a significant reservoir for disease transmission, with rabies being the most feared.[19]
As a naturally evolved breed, Indian Pariah Dogs have very few health issues and thrive with minimal maintenance in suitable climates. Their skin requires little care, and the dogs themselves are relatively clean with naturally low body odor.[20] Genetic diseases such as hip dysplasia are extremely rare due to the absence of inbreeding, with dominant genes that aid their survival being naturally selected over time.[21] Most of their deaths result from accidents on roads or railway tracks, consumption of contaminated food or water, tumors, snake bites, or harm caused by humans.
Indian Pariah Dogs or INDogs have a high life expectancy and are not affected by genetic diseases due to strong evolutionary pressures, unlike modern dog breeds.[4]
Demographic aspects
It is estimated that there are approximately 1 billion dogs worldwide, but only about 20% live in a dependent and restricted relationship with humans (Category 4). This suggests that around 800 million dogs globally are Pariah Dogs.[17]
Furthermore, hybrid or stray dogs worldwide appear to show convergent evolution, resembling Indian Pariah Dogs. These dogs live in similar environments or ecological niches as Pariah Dogs and, under the same environmental pressures, have evolved through natural selection to develop similar structures or adaptations, resulting in striking similarities. See the collection of images of stray and hybrid dogs from around the world.
The Primitive and Aboriginal Dogs Society (PADS) has officially changed the name from Pariah Dog to INDog. It provides a comprehensive list of primitive dog types, including Indian INDogs:[22]
1 2 Gompper, Matthew (2014). Free-ranging dogs and wildlife conservation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p.28. ISBN978-0-19-966321-7. OCLC868971167.
↑ Franco Mutinelli; Lebana Bonfanti; Giulia Mascarello; Barbara Tiozzo (September 2010). "RABBIA… c'era una volta?"[Rabies… Once Upon a Time?](PDF) (in Italian). Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie. Retrieved October 27, 2025.
↑ Choudhury-Mahajan, Lina (July 12, 2011). "Paws for thought". Hindustan Times. Retrieved October 27, 2025.
Brehm, A.E. (1896). Life of animals. Chicago: A.N. Marquins & Co.
Serpell, James (1995). "From Paragon to Pariah: Some Reflections on Human Attitudes towards Dogs". In James Serpell (ed.). The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour, and Interactions with People. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.245–256.
Morrison, Peter (2017). Indian Pariah Dog Activities (Tricks, Games & Agility). Global Pet Care International.
Shannon, Laura M.; Boyko, Ryan H.; Castelhano, Marta; Corey, Elizabeth; Hayward, Jessica J.; McLean, Corin; White, Michelle E.; Abi Said, Mounir; Anita, Baddley A.; Bondjengo, Nono Ikombe; Calero, Jorge; Galov, Ana; Hedimbi, Marius; Imam, Bulu; Khalap, Rajashree; Lally, Douglas; Masta, Andrew; Oliveira, Kyle C.; Pérez, Lucía; Randall, Julia; Tam, Nguyen Minh; Trujillo-Cornejo, Francisco J.; Valeriano, Carlos; Sutter, Nathan B.; Todhunter, Rory J.; Bustamante, Carlos D.; Boyko, Adam R. (2015). "Genetic structure in village dogs reveals a Central Asian domestication origin". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (44): 13639–13644. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11213639S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1516215112. ISSN0027-8424.
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