Sex effects of water pollution

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Sex is influenced by water pollutants that are encountered in everyday life. These sources of water can range from the simplicity of a water fountain to the entirety of the oceans. The pollutants within the water range from endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) in birth control to Bisphenol A (BPA). Foreign substances such as chemical pollutants that cause an alteration of sex have been found in growing prevalence in the circulating waters of the world. These pollutants have affected not only humans, but also animals in contact with the pollutants.

Contents

Endocrine disruptor chemicals

Endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) are a type of chemical that directly influences sex hormones. [1] They have acquired these names due to the fact that they are anti-estrogens and anti-androgens. [1] By inhibiting the function of these hormones, fertility decreases, and an imbalance of such hormones has been shown to cause feminizing effects in males.[ citation needed ] This is not only a human issue, but has become increasingly noticeable in fish populations worldwide. [2] Scientists believe that these chemicals present in the water supply leads to increasing feminizing effects in male fish. [2] Estrogens accumulate in body fat and tissue, and because of the cycle of the food chain, the artificial estrogens/EDCs bioaccumulate as they rise up the different levels of the food chain.

EDCs are present in the environment, whether naturally or artificially. [1] Although the EDCs from birth control are obviously causing a great effect on the humans, it turns out that, in the United States, the estrogens given to livestock are even more prevalent. [3]

Pollutants and their source of origin

Pharmaceuticals

Sex-altering pollutants come from many sources. One source that is becoming more visible is water pollution through pharmaceuticals. Pharmaceutical products may contain microscopic pollutants that imitate the chemical structure of hormones found in living organisms. These compounds are called Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals. They usually mimic the chemical structures of estrogens and androgens. [4] The sources of these artificial EDCs are surprisingly common in human production and usage of many household and industrial products. For example, EDCs such as parabens, phthalates, and triclosans can be found in everyday household items such as generic shampoos, conditioners, soaps, perfumes, makeup, and lotions. EDCs are either applied to the skin and are absorbed, ingested and then excreted in urine, or are washed off in the shower or sink and have been documented in multiple water analyses. Below are some of the most commonly tested, used, and analyzed EDCs found in pharmaceuticals and personal care products:

Aside from these microscopic EDCs, some of the other more common types of pharmaceuticals found in water analyses are "anti-depressants, anti-seizure drugs, and one that is very well known: birth control." [3]

Industry and farming

However, pharmaceuticals are not the largest contributor to the growing amount of gender-altering pollution in the water. Scientists at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) stated that there are many other sources of chemicals like the ones found in various pharmaceuticals that produce the same effects. [3] "Crop fertilizers along with dairy cows, and various industrial chemicals like BPA" are increasingly seen as a source for pollution causing certain specific effects in those who consume them or products that are manufactured from them. [3] Specifically shifting to industrial chemicals, when they, along with other products containing these chemicals, are disposed of, they end up in landfills. [3] Runoff from said landfills eventually finds its way to a larger source of water and the contamination begins.

Fossil fuels and organics

Another source from which pollutants originate is fossil fuel combustion. [5] The organic pollutants and trace metals released into the air from this combustion end up in the oceans and influence the chemistry of the ocean. One specific process that has a great impact on the global nitrogen cycle which affects ocean climate, the Haber-Bosch process, is used for an agricultural fertilizer. [5]

Humans

There are also humans. The chemicals that alter gender are constantly produced and excreted by a human being on a normal everyday basis. Along with this, pregnant women contain greater amounts of the chemicals thus releasing greater amounts of it with every excretion. [3] Because of this, one can see that the source of gender-altering pollutants is not natural, but due to man-made chemicals that, globally, are being released.

Circulation of pollutants

Chemicals such as EDCs and artificial estrogens are in constant circulation around the planet through a variety of mediums. Humans have become a main contributor to the toxic buildup of these chemicals in our ecosystem. [6] Main sources of drinking water, such as rivers, lakes, streams, and eventually the ocean are just a few of such mediums that carry these chemicals from place to place. Most chemical exposure to impoverished people around the world who live in rural areas is linked to their exposure to polluted water sources. [7]

The process of the EDCs entering the water source all begins with a source. Whether it comes from an industrial plant, pharmaceutical, or human source, it eventually finds its way to a larger water source, usually in the form of a waste product. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has documented the amount of pharmaceuticals released into the environment from manufacturing plants, however, this documentation is not as prevalent on a household level. [8] There are some on-going efforts to attempt to minimize this pollution. For example, 80 percent of pharmacies in Clark County, Washington, have contributed to efforts emphasizing the safe disposal of noncontrolled drugs. [8] Attempts to control water pollution are gaining support as pollution gradually becomes more visible. However, these efforts are still in the process of being implemented on a large scale. The polluted water is then sent to a number of places.

Waste management

One possibility is that the water is sent to a waste management facility to be treated and then recirculated. However, experts have found that sewage treatment does not remove these chemicals completely from drinking supplies. Any type of water that is flushed down the shower, toilet, or sink usually carries with it some sort of EDC. These drains lead to pipes that lead to a waste water management plant. A typical waste water treatment plant involves a multiple step process of water cleaning but due to the microscopic size of EDC particles, it usually is not a 100% successful process. For example, Boulder, Colorado Waste Water Management receives water in inceptor pipes, which lead into larger holding pools at the facility. The typical treatment usually lasts between 12 and 24 hours and consists of three main treatment processes. First, physical treatments remove solid and organic materials from the waste water. Then, microbiological treatments follow. Bacteria in these waste tanks feed on carbon and nitrogenous compounds left in the sewage. And finally, the water is treated with ultraviolet blue light to disinfect the remaining water. The effluent water is feed back into local creeks, streams, and freshwater resources. This basic waste water treatment plan is effective in targeting larger contaminants, however, it is ineffective in removing microscopic EDCs. [9] Thus, EDC micro-pollution is causing a toxic buildup of chemical soups in freshwater habitats. [10]

In response to this, the water industry has stated that there is no evidence of a risk to overall health as a result of exposure to these chemicals. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states in its review of water pollution that many contaminants survive wastewater treatment and biodegradation, and are detectable in the environment. Therefore, the tainted source is recycled through a community, exposing more people and releasing more chemicals along the way.[ citation needed ]

Water cycle

A second source of circulation is water as it follows its natural path through the water cycle. The water cycle, put simply, represents the path that water takes as it circulates around planet earth. [11] It follows a series of stages in which the water changes state multiple times until it finally falls back to earth where it will once again be circulated. In the water cycle, both organic and inorganic pollutants are biodegraded or filtered out whereas they no longer present much of a threat. [11] This is also true for small amounts of chemicals present in the water. However, when there are very large amounts of chemicals, organic or inorganic, present in the water as it cycles through the atmosphere, harmful effects can be seen in areas where this water falls as precipitation. This precipitation re-enters the ongoing circulation of water pollution.

Ocean and marine life

Another path in which the water can circulate is by flowing directly to the ocean. Pollutants are prevalent in coastal and open-ocean waters as contaminated water flows from point sources to the sea. [5] These pollutants are then distributed globally due to the circulation of the ocean currents and migration of exposed marine life. [5] This becomes an explanation of how the chemicals, once again, find their way to a human consumer. Marine wildlife in a polluted area exists in and consumes contaminated water daily. When it is harvested, it has accumulated an amount of harmful chemicals/EDCs relatively high to that compared to ambient ocean levels. [5] This is then passed on to consumers of the seafood: humans, whereas the chemicals bioaccumulate in their bodies eventually causing sex-related health problems.

Effects of pollutants on sex

These chemicals have an effect on the sex of many humans because of constant exposure. The pollutants found in the water have been observed in many studies that produce concrete data describing the effects they have on the hormones in both males and females. Studies have been conducted on animals, but the observed trends are also associated with effects noticed in humans. Scientists observing EDCs in women's blood found that these chemicals mimic human hormones and trigger changes in the sex-determining process of unborn children. [12] Some scientists suggest that this hormonal influence on the sex-determining process has led to a decrease in the male/female ratio. [12] Other effects directly influencing the sex of an individual include a decrease in number and quality of sperm and increased deficiency in a male's reproductive system. [13]

Specifically looking at the effects of EDCs on sperm, these chemicals cause a premature release of a chemical that the sperm cells use to penetrate the egg's outer layer. [1] Results collected from a study help to explain why the sperm act the way they do. In respect to the deficiency of the male's reproductive system, these chemicals begin affecting a male as early as birth. As the testes are developing, an occurrence taking place early in the development process, a specific type of cells, Sertoli cells, differentiates. [1] During this period, exposure to an EDC such as oestrogen causes a reduction in Sertoli cells produced. [1] The reduction of Sertoli cells causes a decrease in the production of sperm thus rendering the male reproductive system less effective. [1] EDCs have also been linked to early puberty, infertility, and developmental defects. [3] Not only have these effects been found in human subjects, but aquatic life has also been studied as these animals are in direct contact with EDCs as a part of their lifestyle. Populations of fish have been largely affected by EDC's prevalence in their native ecosystems.

Aquatic life

Solutions

Water filtration technology

In an effort to better filter these trace pollutants out of effluent water leaving waste management plants, studies conducted by Westerhoff et al. [16] and Schafer et al. [17] explore the water filtration systems that are best at removal of EDCs from effluent waters. They found that Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC), membrane filtration (nonfiltration and biofiltration), and reverse osmosis were the best at removal of EDCs.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Estrogen</span> Primary female sex hormone

Estrogen or oestrogen is a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three major endogenous estrogens that have estrogenic hormonal activity: estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3). Estradiol, an estrane, is the most potent and prevalent. Another estrogen called estetrol (E4) is produced only during pregnancy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Water pollution</span> Contamination of water bodies

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources: sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater. Water pollution is either surface water pollution or groundwater pollution. This form of pollution can lead to many problems, such as the degradation of aquatic ecosystems or spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation. Another problem is that water pollution reduces the ecosystem services that the water resource would otherwise provide.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triclosan</span> Antimicrobial agent

Triclosan is an antibacterial and antifungal agent present in some consumer products, including toothpaste, soaps, detergents, toys, and surgical cleaning treatments. It is similar in its uses and mechanism of action to triclocarban. Its efficacy as an antimicrobial agent, the risk of antimicrobial resistance, and its possible role in disrupted hormonal development remains controversial. Additional research seeks to understand its potential effects on organisms and environmental health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Endocrine disruptor</span> Chemicals that can interfere with endocrine or hormonal systems

Endocrine disruptors, sometimes also referred to as hormonally active agents, endocrine disrupting chemicals, or endocrine disrupting compounds are chemicals that can interfere with endocrine systems. These disruptions can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders. Found in many household and industrial products, endocrine disruptors "interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for development, behavior, fertility, and maintenance of homeostasis ."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persistent organic pollutant</span> Organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are toxic chemicals that adversely affect human health and the environment around the world. Because they can be transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can and do affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and released.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nonylphenol</span> Chemical compound

Nonylphenols are a family of closely related organic compounds composed of phenol bearing a 9 carbon-tail. Nonylphenols can come in numerous structures, all of which may be considered alkylphenols. They are used in manufacturing antioxidants, lubricating oil additives, laundry and dish detergents, emulsifiers, and solubilizers. They are used extensively in epoxy formulation in North America but its use has been phased out in Europe. These compounds are also precursors to the commercially important non-ionic surfactants alkylphenol ethoxylates and nonylphenol ethoxylates, which are used in detergents, paints, pesticides, personal care products, and plastics. Nonylphenol has attracted attention due to its prevalence in the environment and its potential role as an endocrine disruptor and xenoestrogen, due to its ability to act with estrogen-like activity. The estrogenicity and biodegradation heavily depends on the branching of the nonyl sidechain. Nonylphenol has been found to act as an agonist of the GPER (GPR30).

Environmental toxicants and fetal development is the impact of different toxic substances from the environment on the development of the fetus. This article deals with potential adverse effects of environmental toxicants on the prenatal development of both the embryo or fetus, as well as pregnancy complications. The human embryo or fetus is relatively susceptible to impact from adverse conditions within the mother's environment. Substandard fetal conditions often cause various degrees of developmental delays, both physical and mental, for the growing baby. Although some variables do occur as a result of genetic conditions pertaining to the father, a great many are directly brought about from environmental toxins that the mother is exposed to.

Xenoestrogens are a type of xenohormone that imitates estrogen. They can be either synthetic or natural chemical compounds. Synthetic xenoestrogens include some widely used industrial compounds, such as PCBs, BPA, and phthalates, which have estrogenic effects on a living organism even though they differ chemically from the estrogenic substances produced internally by the endocrine system of any organism. Natural xenoestrogens include phytoestrogens which are plant-derived xenoestrogens. Because the primary route of exposure to these compounds is by consumption of phytoestrogenic plants, they are sometimes called "dietary estrogens". Mycoestrogens, estrogenic substances from fungi, are another type of xenoestrogen that are also considered mycotoxins.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triclocarban</span> Antimicrobial agent

Triclocarban is an antibacterial chemical once common in, but now phased out of, personal care products like soaps and lotions. It was originally developed for the medical field. Although the mode of action is unknown, TCC can be effective in fighting infections by targeting the growth of bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus. Additional research seeks to understand its potential for causing antibacterial resistance and its effects on organismal and environmental health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Obesogen</span> Foreign chemical compound that disrupts lipid balance causing obseity

Obesogens are certain chemical compounds that are hypothesised to disrupt normal development and balance of lipid metabolism, which in some cases, can lead to obesity. Obesogens may be functionally defined as chemicals that inappropriately alter lipid homeostasis and fat storage, change metabolic setpoints, disrupt energy balance or modify the regulation of appetite and satiety to promote fat accumulation and obesity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ecotoxicity</span>

Ecotoxicity, the subject of study in the field of ecotoxicology, refers to the biological, chemical or physical stressors that affect ecosystems. Such stressors could occur in the natural environment at densities, concentrations, or levels high enough to disrupt natural biochemical and physiological behavior and interactions. This ultimately affects all living organisms that comprise an ecosystem.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products</span> Effects of drugs on the environment

The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is being investigated since at least the 1990s. PPCPs include substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock. More than twenty million tons of PPCPs are produced every year. The European Union has declared pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil to be "priority substances".[3]

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reproductive toxicity</span> A hazard associated with chemical substances

Reproductive toxicity refers to the potential risk from a given chemical, physical or biologic agent to adversely affect both male and female fertility as well as offspring development. Reproductive toxicants may adversely affect sexual function, ovarian failure, fertility as well as causing developmental toxicity in the offspring. Lowered effective fertility related to reproductive toxicity relates to both male and female effects alike and is reflected in decreased sperm counts, semen quality and ovarian failure. Infertility is medically defined as a failure of a couple to conceive over the course of one year of unprotected intercourse. As many as 20% of couples experience infertility. Among men, oligospermia is defined as a paucity of viable spermatozoa in the semen, whereas azoospermia refers to the complete absence of viable spermatozoa in the semen.

Xenohormones or environmental hormones produced outside of the human body which exhibit endocrine hormone-like properties. They may be either of natural origin, such as phytoestrogens, which are derived from plants, or of synthetic origin. These compounds are able to activate the same endocrine receptors as their natural counterparts and are thus frequently implicated in endocrine disruption. The most commonly occurring xenohormones are xenoestrogens, which mimic the effects of estrogen. Other xenohormones include xenoandrogens and xenoprogesterones. Xenohormones are used for a variety of purposes including contraceptive & hormonal therapies, and agriculture. However, exposure to certain xenohormones early in childhood development can lead to a host of developmental issues including infertility, thyroid complications, and early onset of puberty. Exposure to others later in life has been linked to increased risks of testicular, prostate, ovarian, and uterine cancers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant</span> Environmental term

The term environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPP) was first suggested in the nomination in 2010 of pharmaceuticals and environment as an emerging issue in a Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) by the International Society of Doctors for the Environment (ISDE). The occurring problems from EPPPs are in parallel explained under environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCP). The European Union summarizes pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil together with other micropollutants under "priority substances".

Hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (HH), also known as primary or peripheral/gonadal hypogonadism or primary gonadal failure, is a condition which is characterized by hypogonadism which is due to an impaired response of the gonads to the gonadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), and in turn a lack of sex steroid production. As compensation and the lack of negative feedback, gonadotropin levels are elevated. Individuals with HH have an intact and functioning hypothalamus and pituitary glands so they are still able to produce FSH and LH. HH may present as either congenital or acquired, but the majority of cases are of the former nature. HH can be treated with hormone replacement therapy.

Toxicodynamics, termed pharmacodynamics in pharmacology, describes the dynamic interactions of a toxicant with a biological target and its biological effects. A biological target, also known as the site of action, can be binding proteins, ion channels, DNA, or a variety of other receptors. When a toxicant enters an organism, it can interact with these receptors and produce structural or functional alterations. The mechanism of action of the toxicant, as determined by a toxicant’s chemical properties, will determine what receptors are targeted and the overall toxic effect at the cellular level and organismal level.

Drug pollution or pharmaceutical pollution is pollution of the environment with pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, which reach the aquatic environment through wastewater. Drug pollution is therefore mainly a form of water pollution.

Antiandrogens in the environment have become a topic of concern. Many industrial chemicals, including phthalates and pesticides, exhibit antiandrogen activity in animal experiments. Certain plant species have also been found to produce antiandrogens. In animal studies, environmental antiandrogens can harm reproductive organ development in fetuses exposed in utero as well as their offspring.

Pollutant-induced abnormal behaviour refers to the abnormal behaviour induced by pollutants. Chemicals released into the natural environment by humans impact the behaviour of a wide variety of animals. The main culprits are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), which mimic, block, or interfere with animal hormones. A new research field, integrative behavioural ecotoxicology, is emerging. However, chemical pollutants are not the only anthropogenic offenders. Noise and light pollution also induce abnormal behaviour.

References

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  6. ↑ Brett, Tricia. The Fate of Estron (E1), 17beta-Estradiol (E2), Estriol (E3), and 17alpha-ethinylestradiol (EE2) in Surface Waters. Diss. University of British Columbia, Okanagan, 2014. Online.
  7. ↑ Carvalho, Suely (2011). Gender Mainstreaming Guidance Series: Chemicals and Gender (PDF). UNDP Environment and Energy Group. pp. 1–27.
  8. 1 2 Dean, Cornelia (3 April 2007). "Drugs Are in the Water. Does It Matter?". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
  9. ↑ 1. Water Education [Internet]. [cited 2017 May 8]. Available from: https://bouldercolorado.gov/water/water-education
  10. ↑ "Wastewater Collection and Treatment The Foundation of Public Health." Wastewater Treatment. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
  11. 1 2 "Types: Water Pollution". Oracle ThinkQuest. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
  12. 1 2 Brown, Paul (11 September 2007). "Man-Made chemicals blamed as many more girls than boys are born in Arctic". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
  13. ↑ Carvalho, Suely (2011). Gender Mainstreaming Guidance Series: Chemicals and Gender (PDF). UNDP Environment and Energy Group. pp. 1–27.
  14. ↑ Janjua, Nadeem Rezaq, Hanne Frederiksen, Niels E. Skakkebaek, Hans Christian Wulf, and Anna Maria Andersson. "Urinary Excretion of Phthalates and Paraben after Repeatedwhole-body Topical Application in Humans." International Journal of Andrology 31 (2008): 118-30. Wiley Online Library. Web. 5 Apr. 16.
  15. ↑ Lesley J. Mills, Clinton Chichester, Review of evidence: Are endocrine-disrupting chemicals in the aquatic environment impacting fish populations?, Science of the Total Environment, Volume 343, Issues 1–3, 1 May 2005, Pages 1-34, ISSN 0048-9697, https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.12.070.
  16. ↑ Westerhoff, Paul Ph.D., P.E. “Removal of Endocrine Disruptors, Pharmaceuticals, and Personal Care Products During Water Treatment” Southwest Hydrology November/December 2003: 18-19. Online PDF.
  17. ↑ A.I. Schafer, T.D. Waite. “Removal of Endocrine disrupters in advanced treatment—the Australian approach.” Proceedings of the IWA World Water Congress, Workshop Endocrine Disrupters, IWA specialist group on assessment and control of hazardous substances in water (ACHSW), Melbourne (2002), pp. 37-51
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