Squadrone Volante

Last updated

The Squadrone Volante ("Flying Squad") was a 17th-century group of independent and liberal cardinals within the College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church. It attempted to influence the outcome of a number of papal conclaves.

Contents

History

The papal conclave of 1644 to elect Pope Urban VIII's successor had been a matter of divided loyalties. Many of the cardinals created by Pope Urban VIII had formed a faction loyal to the Kingdom of France, controlled by Urban's Cardinal-Nephew, Antonio Barberini. Others had formed a faction loyal to the Kingdom of Spain. French envoy Cardinal Mazarin had not arrived in time to exercise France's jus exclusivae and Innocent, an ally of Spain, was elected.

At the death of Pope Innocent X, the College of Cardinals came together for the papal conclave of 1655. While Pope Urban's Barberini nephews and supporters still pushed for Giulio Cesare Sacchetti to be elected, Innocent had created a large number of cardinals; some with loyalties to Spain, others with no loyalty to any particular monarchy. Many of these cardinals refused to support the Barberini. Making matters worse, Urban's reign (only 11 years earlier) had been famous for its rampant nepotism, much of which had benefited those same nephews. Innocent's reign had been little better and so cardinals were inclined to elect a pope who would bring repute back to the papacy.

At the same time, Innocent's third and final Cardinal-Nephew, Camillo Astalli, had fallen into disrepute. Though he remained a Cardinal and would participate in the conclave, he did not control the College in the same way as the Barberini had tried to control the previous conclave. [1]

And so the conclave of 1655 began with the Spanish still opposed to Sacchetti, the French still opposed to anyone nominated by those loyal to Spain and no-one to control the cardinals. As a result, the cardinals entered the conclave with an unprecedented level of independence.

A group of cardinals, led by Cardinal Decio Azzolino, began to further the view within the College that it was time for a pope who would lead the Catholic Church away from the nepotism which had caused the Church considerable suffering over the preceding decades. Azzolino was also the representative of the very-much-in-fashion Christina, Queen of Sweden. [2] The group called themselves the Flying Squad; Squadrone Volante.

Conclave of 1655

The conclave of 1655 was straightforward enough – the cardinals wanted an end to nepotism and the Squadrone could provide exactly that. Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni (later elected Pope Alexander VIII) is said to have exclaimed, "this time we must seek an honest man!". Azzolino gave his reply; "If you want an honest man, there stands one" and pointed to Cardinal Fabio Chigi. [1]

With no better a suggestion to be found, the College elected Chigi who took the papal throne as Pope Alexander VII. [3]

Conclave of 1667

Still protected by Christina of Sweden and led by her now-favourite Azzolino, the Squadrone continued to operate during Pope Alexander's reign and remained highly involved in European politics in the second half of the 17th century. [1]

In 1667, Alexander died and the College of Cardinals again convened for the papal conclave of 1667.

By then, the Squadrone had developed a good working relationship with those cardinals who remained loyal to the French. While still independent, the Squadrone engineered the nomination by the French of Giulio Rospigliosi who was acceptable to the leader of the Spanish faction, Cardinal Ernst Adalbert of Harrach.

Rospigliosi was elected and took the throne as Pope Clement IX.

Adding further credence to the alleged involvement of the Squadrone, Rospigliosi, who was Cardinal Secretary of State, resigned the post and appointed Cardinal Azzolino as his replacement on the very night he was elected. [4]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pope Alexander VII</span> Head of the Catholic Church from 1655 to 1667

Pope Alexander VII, born Fabio Chigi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 7 April 1655 to his death in May 1667.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pope Alexander VIII</span> Head of the Catholic Church from 1689 to 1691

Pope Alexander VIII, born Pietro Vito Ottoboni, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 6 October 1689 to his death in February 1691. He is to date the last pope to take the pontifical name of "Alexander" upon his election to the papacy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pope Clement IX</span> Head of the Catholic Church from 1667 to 1669

Pope Clement IX, born Giulio Rospigliosi, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 20 June 1667 to his death in December 1669.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pope Innocent X</span> Head of the Catholic Church from 1644 to 1655

Pope Innocent X, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 15 September 1644 to his death in January 1655.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antonio Barberini</span> Italian cardinal

Antonio Barberini was an Italian Catholic cardinal, Archbishop of Reims, military leader, patron of the arts and a prominent member of the House of Barberini. As one of the cardinal-nephews of Pope Urban VIII and a supporter of France, he played a significant role at a number of the papal conclaves of the 17th century. With his brothers Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Taddeo Barberini he helped to shape politics, religion, art and music of 17th century Italy. He is sometimes referred to as Antonio the Younger or Antonio Barberini iuniore to distinguish him from his uncle Antonio Marcello Barberini.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decio Azzolino</span>

Decio Azzolino was an Italian Catholic Cardinal, code-breaker, investigator and leader of the Squadrone Volante.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Olimpia Maidalchini</span> Italian noblewoman

Olimpia Maidalchini Pamphilj, , was the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X (Pamphili). She was perceived by her contemporaries as having influence regarding papal appointments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1667 papal conclave</span> Religious conclave

The 1667 papal conclave was convened on the death of Pope Alexander VII and ended with the election of Cardinal Giulio Rospigliosi as Pope Clement IX. The conclave was dominated by factions loyal to the cardinal nephews of Alexander VII and Urban VIII. It saw the continued existence of the Squadrone Volante, or Flying Squadron, that had emerged in the 1655 conclave. The conclave also saw Spain and France, the two largest Catholic powers at the time, both support Rospigliosi's election as pope. Ultimately, Rospigliosi's election was achieved when the French ambassador bribed Flavio Chigi, Alexander's nephew, to support Rospigliosi. Following the conclave all the parties believed they had elected the pope that they had wanted.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1669–1670 papal conclave</span> Religious conclave

The 1669–70 papal conclave was convened on the death of Pope Clement IX and ended with the election of Cardinal Emilio Altieri as Pope Clement X. The election saw deference within the College of Cardinals to Louis XIV of France, and a freeing of the cardinals loyal to Spain to vote according to their conscience. Eventually the elderly Altieri was elected with support of the major factions within the College.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1676 papal conclave</span>

The 1676 papal conclave was convened after the death of Pope Clement X and lasted from 2 August until 21 September 1676. It led to the election of Cardinal Benedetto Odescalchi as Pope Innocent XI.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1644 papal conclave</span> Religious conclave

The 1644 papal conclave was called upon the death of Pope Urban VIII. It lasted from 9 August to 15 September 1644; the cardinal electors chose Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, who took office as Pope Innocent X.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giulio Cesare Sacchetti</span> Italian Catholic cardinal, 1586–1663

Giulio Cesare Sacchetti was an Italian Catholic Cardinal and was twice included in the French Court's list of acceptable candidates for the Papacy, in 1644 and 1655.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rinaldo d'Este (1618–1672)</span> Italian Catholic Cardinal

Rinaldo d'Este was an Italian Catholic Cardinal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1655 papal conclave</span> Election of Pope Alexander VII

The 1655 papal conclave was convened following the death of Pope Innocent X and ended with the election of Cardinal Fabio Chigi as Alexander VII. The conclave quickly reached a deadlock, with Giulio Cesare Sacchetti receiving 33 votes throughout the conclave, but never securing enough for his own election. After several months of deliberation and negotiation, Chigi was elected Pope when Cardinal Mazarin, the leader of the French government, consented to Chigi's election at the request of Sacchetti.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1689 papal conclave</span> Following the death of Pope Innocent XI

The 1689 papal conclave was convened after the death of Pope Innocent XI. It led to the election of Cardinal Pietro Vito Ottoboni as Pope Alexander VIII. The conclave saw previous factions join together because they lacked numerical strength, and saw the rise of the zelanti as a political force in the election of the next pope. Ottoboni was eventually unanimously elected with the consent of the secular monarchs, becoming the first Venetian in over 200 years to be elected pope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carlo Rossetti</span>

Carlo Rossetti (Roscetti) (1614 – 23 November 1681) was an Italian Catholic Cardinal, born of the noble Rossetti family in Ferrara. Earlier in his career he went to London as a secret nuncio on behalf of Pope Urban VIII. While in London, he was addressed as Lord Charles Rossetti and was referred to as Prince Rossetti, using his title as Italian nobility for his cover, rather than as a representative of the Roman Catholic Church to avoid persecution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flavio Chigi (1631–1693)</span> Italian cardinal and librarian (1631–1693)

Flavio Chigi was an Italian Catholic Cardinal and Duke of Ariccia. He was Cardinal-Nephew to Pope Alexander VII and became a powerful political force inside the Roman Catholic Church during the latter half of the 17th century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1691 papal conclave</span> Following the death of Pope Alexander VIII

The 1691 papal conclave was convened on the death of Pope Alexander VIII and ended with the election of Cardinal Antonio Pignatelli as Pope Innocent XII. It lasted for five months, from 12 February to 12 July 1691. The conclave became deadlocked after Catholic monarchs opposed the election of Gregorio Barbarigo, who some members of the College of Cardinals also viewed as too strict. The conclave only ended in the July when cardinals started to become ill from the heat, and after French cardinals agreed to vote for Pignatelli despite him coming from Spanish-controlled Naples.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giovanni Stefano Donghi</span>

Giovanni Stefano Donghi was an Italian Catholic cardinal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lorenzo Imperiali</span>

Lorenzo Imperiali was an Italian Catholic cardinal.

References

  1. 1 2 3 History of the popes; their church and state (Volume III) by Leopold von Ranke (2009, Wellesley College Library)
  2. Church Politics in Seventeenth-Century Rome: Cardinal Decio Azzolino, Queen Christina of Sweden, and the Squadrone Volante - Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis: Stockholm Studies in History by Marie-Louise Rodén, 2000, ISBN   91-22-01838-7
  3. Note: Though this also required Olimpia Maidalchini to be convinced – a group of older cardinals, perhaps including her long-time ally Azzolino, convinced her that Chigi presented a better option than a group of bored, younger cardinals looking to cause trouble (who might become bored enough to vote for anyone in protest).
  4. Pope Alexander the Seventh and the College of Cardinals by John Bargrave, edited by James Craigie Robertson (reprint; 2009)

Further reading