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Amphetamine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),narcolepsy,and obesity. Amphetamine was discovered as a chemical in 1887 by Lazăr Edeleanu,and then as a drug in the late 1920s. It exists as two enantiomers:levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine. Amphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical,the racemic free base,which is equal parts of the two enantiomers in their pure amine forms. The term is frequently used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers,or to either of them alone. Historically,it has been used to treat nasal congestion and depression. Amphetamine is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer,and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant. It is a prescription drug in many countries,and unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine are often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with recreational use.
Dopamine is a neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells. It is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families. Dopamine constitutes about 80% of the catecholamine content in the brain. It is an amine synthesized by removing a carboxyl group from a molecule of its precursor chemical,L-DOPA,which is synthesized in the brain and kidneys. Dopamine is also synthesized in plants and most animals. In the brain,dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by neurons to send signals to other nerve cells. Neurotransmitters are synthesized in specific regions of the brain,but affect many regions systemically. The brain includes several distinct dopamine pathways,one of which plays a major role in the motivational component of reward-motivated behavior. The anticipation of most types of rewards increases the level of dopamine in the brain,and many addictive drugs increase dopamine release or block its reuptake into neurons following release. Other brain dopamine pathways are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of various hormones. These pathways and cell groups form a dopamine system which is neuromodulatory.
The mesolimbic pathway,sometimes referred to as the reward pathway,is a dopaminergic pathway in the brain. The pathway connects the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain to the ventral striatum of the basal ganglia in the forebrain. The ventral striatum includes the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle.
Dextroamphetamine is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant and enantiomer of amphetamine that is prescribed for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. It is also used as an athletic performance and cognitive enhancer,and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant.
The nucleus accumbens is a region in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus. The nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle collectively form the ventral striatum. The ventral striatum and dorsal striatum collectively form the striatum,which is the main component of the basal ganglia. The dopaminergic neurons of the mesolimbic pathway project onto the GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle. Each cerebral hemisphere has its own nucleus accumbens,which can be divided into two structures:the nucleus accumbens core and the nucleus accumbens shell. These substructures have different morphology and functions.
Dopaminergic pathways in the human brain are involved in both physiological and behavioral processes including movement,cognition,executive functions,reward,motivation,and neuroendocrine control. Each pathway is a set of projection neurons,consisting of individual dopaminergic neurons.
Dopamine receptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are prominent in the vertebrate central nervous system (CNS). Dopamine receptors activate different effectors through not only G-protein coupling,but also signaling through different protein interactions. The neurotransmitter dopamine is the primary endogenous ligand for dopamine receptors.
Motivational salience is a cognitive process and a form of attention that motivates or propels an individual's behavior towards or away from a particular object,perceived event or outcome. Motivational salience regulates the intensity of behaviors that facilitate the attainment of a particular goal,the amount of time and energy that an individual is willing to expend to attain a particular goal,and the amount of risk that an individual is willing to accept while working to attain a particular goal.
Sensitization is a non-associative learning process in which repeated administration of a stimulus results in the progressive amplification of a response. Sensitization often is characterized by an enhancement of response to a whole class of stimuli in addition to the one that is repeated. For example,repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more responsive to a loud noise.
Kent C. Berridge is an American academic,currently working as a professor of psychology (biopsychology) and neuroscience at the University of Michigan. Berridge was a joint winner of the 2018 Grawemeyer Award for Psychology.
DNQX (6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione) is a competitive antagonist at AMPA and kainate receptors,two ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) subfamilies. It is used in a variety of molecular biology subfields,notably neurophysiology,to assist researchers in determining the properties of various types of ion channels and their potential applications in medicine.
The reward system is a group of neural structures responsible for incentive salience,associative learning,and positively-valenced emotions,particularly ones involving pleasure as a core component. Reward is the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces appetitive behavior,also known as approach behavior,and consummatory behavior. A rewarding stimulus has been described as "any stimulus,object,event,activity,or situation that has the potential to make us approach and consume it is by definition a reward". In operant conditioning,rewarding stimuli function as positive reinforcers;however,the converse statement also holds true:positive reinforcers are rewarding.
Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript,also known as CART,is a neuropeptide protein that in humans is encoded by the CARTPT gene. CART appears to have roles in reward,feeding,and stress,and it has the functional properties of an endogenous psychostimulant.
Protein fosB,also known as FosB and G0/G1 switch regulatory protein 3 (G0S3),is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (FOSB) gene.
Behavioral addiction,process addiction,or non-substance-related disorder is a form of addiction that involves a compulsion to engage in a rewarding non-substance-related behavior –sometimes called a natural reward –despite any negative consequences to the person's physical,mental,social or financial well-being. In the brain's reward system,a gene transcription factor known as ΔFosB has been identified as a necessary common factor involved in both behavioral and drug addictions,which are associated with the same set of neural adaptations.
Amphetamine dependence refers to a state of psychological dependence on a drug in the amphetamine class. Stimulants such as amphetamines and cocaine do not cause somatic symptoms upon cessation of use but rather neurological-based mental symptoms.
Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a drug or engage in a behaviour that produces natural reward,despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters brain function in ways that perpetuate craving,and weakens self-control. This phenomenon –drugs reshaping brain function –has led to an understanding of addiction as a brain disorder with a complex variety of psychosocial as well as neurobiological factors that are implicated in addiction's development. Classic signs of addiction include compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli,preoccupation with substances or behavior,and continued use despite negative consequences. Habits and patterns associated with addiction are typically characterized by immediate gratification,coupled with delayed deleterious effects.
Addiction is a state characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli,despite adverse consequences. The process of developing an addiction occurs through instrumental learning,which is otherwise known as operant conditioning.
Addiction vulnerability is an individual's risk of developing an addiction during their lifetime. There are a range of genetic and environmental risk factors for developing an addiction that vary across the population. Genetic and environmental risk factors each account for roughly half of an individual's risk for developing an addiction;the contribution from epigenetic risk factors to the total risk is unknown. Even in individuals with a relatively low genetic risk,exposure to sufficiently high doses of an addictive drug for a long period of time can result in an addiction. In other words,anyone can become an individual with a substance use disorder under particular circumstances. Research is working toward establishing a comprehensive picture of the neurobiology of addiction vulnerability,including all factors at work in propensity for addiction.
Evolutionary models of drug use seek to explain human drug usage from the perspective of evolutionary fitness. Plants for instance,may provide fitness benefits by relieving pain. Proponents of this model of drug use suggest that the consumption of pharmacological substances for medicinal purposes evolved in the backdrop of human-plant coevolution as a means of self-medication. Humans thus learned to ignore the cues of plant toxicity because ingesting the bioactive compounds of plants in small amounts was therapeutic.
References
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- ↑ Michels, Kirsten (August 3, 2003). "Wanting and Liking for the Addict". APS Observer. 16– via www.psychologicalscience.org.
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- 1 2 Robinson, Terry E.; Becker, Jill B.; Presty, Sharon K. (December 16, 1982). "Long-term facilitation of amphetamine-induced rotational behavior and striatal dopamine release produced by a single exposure to amphetamine: Sex differences". Brain Research. 253 (1): 231–241. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(82)90690-4. hdl: 2027.42/23769 . PMID 6891283. S2CID 15633797 – via ScienceDirect.
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- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Jurson, Phillip A.; Bennett, Julie A.; Bentgen, Kris M. (October 18, 1988). "Persistent sensitization of dopamine neurotransmission in ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) produced by prior experience with (+)-amphetamine: a microdialysis study in freely moving rats". Brain Research. 462 (2): 211–222. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(88)90549-5. hdl: 2027.42/27094 . PMID 2847849. S2CID 14393258 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Lin-Chu, Guan; Robinson, Terry E.; Becker, Jill B. (May 1, 1985). "Sensitization of rotational behavior produced by a single exposure to cocaine". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 22 (5): 901–903. doi:10.1016/0091-3057(85)90545-3. hdl: 2027.42/25693 . PMID 3925466. S2CID 1078137 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Angus, Amy L.; Becker, Jill B. (September 16, 1985). "Sensitization to stress: The enduring effects of prior stress on amphetamine-induced rotational behavior". Life Sciences. 37 (11): 1039–1042. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(85)90594-6. hdl: 2027.42/25568 . PMID 4041000 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Paulson, Pamela E.; Camp, Dianne M.; Robinson, Terry E. (April 1, 1991). "Time course of transient behavioral depression and persistent behavioral sensitization in relation to regional brain monoamine concentrations during amphetamine withdrawal in rats". Psychopharmacology. 103 (4): 480–492. doi:10.1007/BF02244248. PMC 1865099 . PMID 2062986 – via Springer Link.
- ↑ Berridge, K. C.; Venier, I. L.; Robinson, T. E. (February 23, 1989). "Taste reactivity analysis of 6-hydroxydopamine-induced aphagia: implications for arousal and anhedonia hypotheses of dopamine function". Behavioral Neuroscience. 103 (1): 36–45. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.103.1.36. PMID 2493791 – via PubMed.
- ↑ Robinson, T. E.; Berridge, K. C. (November 23, 1993). "The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction". Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 18 (3): 247–291. doi:10.1016/0165-0173(93)90013-p. hdl: 2027.42/30601 . PMID 8401595. S2CID 13471436 – via PubMed.
- ↑ Yeung, Andy W. K.; Goto, Tazuko K.; Leung, W. Keung (November 23, 2017). "At the Leading Front of Neuroscience: A Bibliometric Study of the 100 Most-Cited Articles". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 11: 363. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00363 . PMC 5520389 . PMID 28785211.
- ↑ Valderrama Zurián, Juan Carlos; Bueno Cañigral, Francisco Jesús; Castelló Cogollos, Lourdes; Aleixandre-Benavent, Rafael (April 1, 2021). "The most 100 cited papers in addiction research on cannabis, heroin, cocaine and psychostimulants. A bibliometric cross-sectional analysis". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 221: 108616. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108616. PMID 33636599. S2CID 232064840 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Berridge, Kent C; Robinson, Terry E (December 1, 1998). "What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience?". Brain Research Reviews. 28 (3): 309–369. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(98)00019-8. PMID 9858756 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Berridge, Kent C. (August 23, 2000). "The psychology and neurobiology of addiction: an incentive–sensitization view". Addiction. 95 (8s2): 91–117. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.95.8s2.19.x. hdl: 2027.42/75373 . PMID 11002906 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Berridge, Kent C. (February 23, 2003). "Addiction". Annual Review of Psychology. 54 (1): 25–53. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145237. PMID 12185211 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Anagnostaras, Stephan G.; Robinson, Terry E. (December 23, 1996). "Sensitization to the psychomotor stimulant effects of amphetamine: Modulation by associative learning". Behavioral Neuroscience. 110 (6): 1397–1414. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.110.6.1397. PMID 8986341 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Badiani, Aldo; Oates, Matthew M.; Day, Heidi E. W.; Watson, Stanley J.; Akil, Huda; Robinson, Terry E. (December 15, 1998). "Amphetamine-Induced Behavior, Dopamine Release, and c-fos mRNA Expression: Modulation by Environmental Novelty". The Journal of Neuroscience. 18 (24): 10579–10593. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-24-10579.1998. PMC 6793358 . PMID 9852594.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Browman, Kaitlin E.; Crombag, Hans S.; Badiani, Aldo (March 1, 1998). "Modulation of the Induction or Expression of Psychostimulant Sensitization by the Circumstances Surrounding Drug Administration". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 22 (2): 347–354. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(97)00020-1. PMID 9579324. S2CID 20846702 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Samaha, Anne-Noël; Li, Yilin; Robinson, Terry E. (April 15, 2002). "The Rate of Intravenous Cocaine Administration Determines Susceptibility to Sensitization". Journal of Neuroscience. 22 (8): 3244–3250. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-08-03244.2002. PMC 6757529 . PMID 11943825 – via www.jneurosci.org.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Kolb, Bryan (November 1, 1997). "Persistent Structural Modifications in Nucleus Accumbens and Prefrontal Cortex Neurons Produced by Previous Experience with Amphetamine". Journal of Neuroscience. 17 (21): 8491–8497. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-21-08491.1997. PMC 6573726 . PMID 9334421 – via www.jneurosci.org.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Kolb, Bryan (May 23, 1999). "Alterations in the morphology of dendrites and dendritic spines in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex following repeated treatment with amphetamine or cocaine". European Journal of Neuroscience. 11 (5): 1598–1604. doi: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00576.x . hdl: 2027.42/75023 . PMID 10215912. S2CID 14635277.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Gorny, Grazyna; Mitton, Elizabeth; Kolb, Bryan (March 1, 2001). "Cocaine self-administration alters the morphology of dendrites and dendritic spines in the nucleus accumbens and neocortex". Synapse. 39 (3): 257–266. doi:10.1002/1098-2396(20010301)39:3<257::AID-SYN1007>3.0.CO;2-1. hdl: 2027.42/34991 . PMID 11169774. S2CID 10612862 – via CrossRef.
- ↑ Kolb, Bryan; Gorny, Grazyna; Li, Yilin; Samaha, Anne-Noël; Robinson, Terry E. (September 2, 2003). "Amphetamine or cocaine limits the ability of later experience to promote structural plasticity in the neocortex and nucleus accumbens". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (18): 10523–10528. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10010523K. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1834271100 . PMC 193594 . PMID 12939407.
- ↑ Robinson, Terry E.; Kolb, Bryan (January 1, 2004). "Structural plasticity associated with exposure to drugs of abuse". Neuropharmacology. 47: 33–46. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.06.025. PMID 15464124. S2CID 1987897 – via ScienceDirect.
- ↑ Hewer, Mariko (30 September 2014). "Different Roads, Same Reward". Aps Observer. 27.
- ↑ Flagel, Shelly B.; Clark, Jeremy J.; Robinson, Terry E.; Mayo, Leah; Czuj, Alayna; Willuhn, Ingo; Akers, Christina A.; Clinton, Sarah M.; Phillips, Paul E. M.; Akil, Huda (January 23, 2011). "A selective role for dopamine in stimulus–reward learning". Nature. 469 (7328): 53–57. Bibcode:2011Natur.469...53F. doi:10.1038/nature09588. PMC 3058375 . PMID 21150898.
- ↑ Kawa, Alex B.; Bentzley, Brandon S.; Robinson, Terry E. (October 23, 2016). "Less is more: prolonged intermittent access cocaine self-administration produces incentive-sensitization and addiction-like behavior". Psychopharmacology. 233 (19–20): 3587–3602. doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4393-8. PMC 5023484 . PMID 27481050.
- ↑ Singer, Bryan F.; Fadanelli, Monica; Kawa, Alex B.; Robinson, Terry E. (January 3, 2018). "Are Cocaine-Seeking "Habits" Necessary for the Development of Addiction-Like Behavior in Rats?". The Journal of Neuroscience. 38 (1): 60–73. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2458-17.2017. PMC 5761437 . PMID 29158359.
- ↑ Kawa, Alex B.; Allain, Florence; Robinson, Terry E.; Samaha, Anne-Noël (April 1, 2019). "The transition to cocaine addiction: the importance of pharmacokinetics for preclinical models". Psychopharmacology. 236 (4): 1145–1157. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-5164-0. PMC 6592776 . PMID 30820634 – via Springer Link.
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- ↑ "Distinguished alumnus Dr. Terry Robinson to receive Honorary Degree | UNews". www.ulethbridge.ca.
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