The Massacre of 1391

Last updated October 15, 2019

Also known as The pogroms of 1391, the Massacre of 1391 was a display of antisemitism and violence against Jews in Spain. It is considered one of the Middle Ages' largest attacks on the Jews, who were ultimately expelled from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492.^[1] While the Jews in the Iberian Peninsula at this time were generally disliked, violence against the Jews and especially against the conversos was common even until the 1400s.^[2] However, 1391 marked a peak in the violence against the Jews.^[2]

A pogrom is a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews. The Russian term originally entered the English language in order to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire. Similar attacks against Jews at other times and places also became retrospectively known as pogroms. The word is now also sometimes used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish ethnic or religious groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incidents, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres.

Antisemitism is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism.

Spain, officially the Kingdom of Spain, is a European country located in Southwestern Europe with some pockets of Spanish territory across the Strait of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean. Its continental European territory is situated on the Iberian Peninsula. Its territory also includes two archipelagoes: the Canary Islands off the coast of Africa, and the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea. The African enclaves of Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera make Spain the only European country to have a physical border with an African country (Morocco). Several small islands in the Alboran Sea are also part of Spanish territory. The country's mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north and northeast by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the west and northwest by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean.

Attitudes toward the Jews in the 1300s

In the years leading up to the Massacre of 1391, the Jews were not particularly liked by the Catholic church because, according to the Catholic interpretation of the New Testament at the time, they had crucified the Christ, but there was tolerance as they were under the protection of Spain and had crucial roles in banking and finance that made them a financial asset.^[3] In the early fourteenth century (1311-12) the general council of Vienne met and decided to censor the Moor's religious freedoms, and some would claim that the general council became aware of what their neighbors thought of their tolerance of the Jews, and therefore returned to Spain with a newfound goal to damage the peaceful tolerance between the Jews, Moors, and larger Spanish population.^[3] However, while it is likely that this inspired ill feelings towards the Jews, there was no drastic result because of the current tax on the Jewish people which contributed greatly to the kingdom and the church. Thus, the Jews were too much of an economic asset to be violently discriminated against.^[3]

Vienne is a department in the French region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It takes its name from the river Vienne.

Moors Medieval Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta

The term "Moors" refers primarily to the Muslim inhabitants of the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily, and Malta during the Middle Ages. The Moors initially were the indigenous Maghrebine Berbers. The name was later also applied to Arabs.

A tax is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a governmental organization in order to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, along with evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent. The first known taxation took place in Ancient Egypt around 3000–2800 BC.

Violence in the early 1300s

Peter (Pedro) I (known by his enemies as Peter the Cruel) was the king of Castile from 1350 to 1365.^[2] Unlike the norm of abusing the Jews financially, Peter was sympathetic to the Jews.^[2] Some would explain his Jewish sympathy by claiming that he was illegitimately Jewish himself.^[2]

Peter, called the Cruel or the Just, was the king of Castile and León from 1350 to 1369. Peter was the last ruler of the main branch of the House of Ivrea.

Castile is a historical region of Spain. Its extension is often ascribed to the sum of the regions of Old Castile and New Castile, as they were formally defined in the 1833 territorial division of Spain. Those two regions cover the following modern autonomous communities: the eastern part of Castile and León, Castile-La Mancha, and Community of Madrid as well as Cantabria and La Rioja. However, it has been pointed out that in practice the modern limits of Castile are imprecise, and that this name has been used mainly as a reference for the image of Spain as a nation.

While a rebel against the church, Peter the Cruel had become a sort of protector of the Jews against Henry of Trastamara, his half-brother.^[3] Henry had killed around 1,200 Jews in 1355, ordered a Jewish massacre in 1360, and was involved in the murder of many other Jews in 1366.^[3] When Peter's half-brother Henry killed him during a battle in a civil war in 1369, the Jews lost their royal protection and became the subject of attacks in Castile.^[2] The Jews also were greatly taxed.^[2] While Henry had criticized his brother for being in support of the Jews, he himself became tolerant of them because of the financial burdens placed on them and the services they provided.^[2]Because of Henry's violence toward the Jews, the common people of Spain began to accept this violent antisemitism, but the Jews were too important financially to be completely annihilated.^[3]

Henry II, called Henry of Trastámara or the Fratricide, was the first King of Castile and León from the House of Trastámara. He became king in 1369 by defeating his half-brother, Peter the Cruel, after numerous rebellions and battles. As king he was involved in the Fernandine Wars and the Hundred Years' War.

A civil war, also known as an intrastate war in polemology, is a war between organized groups within the same state or country. The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region or to change government policies. The term is a calque of the Latin bellum civile which was used to refer to the various civil wars of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC.

The tragedy of 1391 would not have been possible without the Archdeacon of Ecija, Ferrand Martinez, whose actions ignited this tragedy against the Jewish people.^[3] Ferrand Martinez was a well-respected and prominent member of the Catholic church, but in his preaching, Martinez would use political anti-Judaism ^[4] to aid him as he harshly criticized the Jews and would stir the people up against them.^[3] Martinez would carry his prejudices with him as a religious judge as he would illegally wrong the Jews because of his negative feelings toward them.^[3] He even went so far as to write to the nearby authorities and command them to remove the Jews from living among them.^[3]

Anti-Judaism is the "total or partial opposition to Judaism—and to Jews as adherents of it—by persons who accept a competing system of beliefs and practices and consider certain genuine Judaic beliefs and practices as inferior."

The Jews of Seville became greatly concerned with Martinez's orders, so they reached out to the King of Spain.^[3] Because of their importance to his finances, Henry sided with the Jews in 1378 and told Martinez to stop his persecution of the Jews.^[3] However, Martinez ignored Henry and continued to preach violence against the Jews as he abused his power in the religious judiciary.^[3] The Jews continued to complain to the king about the injustices against them, and Martinez was warned in 1382, 1383, and 1388 to stop abusing his power and preaching that the king would not punish anyone who attacked or killed the Jews.^[3]

Seville is a Spanish city, the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the Guadalquivir River, in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. Seville has a municipal population of about 690,000 as of 2016, and a metropolitan population of about 1.5 million, making it the largest city in Andalusia, the fourth-largest city in Spain and the 30th most populous municipality in the European Union. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres (2 sq mi), contains three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Alcázar palace complex, the Cathedral and the General Archive of the Indies. The Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville experiences high temperatures in the Summer, with daily maximums routinely above 35 °C (95 °F) in July and August.

Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another individual or group. The most common forms are religious persecution, racism and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these terms. The inflicting of suffering, harassment, imprisonment, internment, fear, or pain are all factors that may establish persecution, but not all suffering will necessarily establish persecution. The suffering experienced by the victim must be sufficiently severe. The threshold level of severity has been a source of much debate.

When Martinez continued to declare his strong beliefs against the Jews, the king was once again informed of his harmful actions, but rather than take immediate action, he simply commended Martinez for his religious zeal but also reminded him that the Jews were still under the crown's protection.^[3] This only fed Martinez as he continued to stir up the people through his harmful sermons against the Jews.^[3] It wasn't until 1389 that Archbishop Barroso suspended Martinez from both preaching and his judicial position because he had publicly and inaccurately preached on the Pope's power.^[3]

While Martinez' suspension did give the Jews some relief, it was short lived; in 1390 both Archbishop Barroso and the king died, resulting in Martinez gaining a higher position in the church and his suspension being terminated.^[3] Martinez used his newfound position and power to order the Jewish synagogues to be destroyed, the materials used in Catholic churches, and the Jewish books to be sent to him.^[3] This destruction and the force used to fulfill it rightly frightened the Jews of Seville, who once again reached out to the authorities to protect them from Martinez' oppression.^[3] In early 1391, the authorities wrote to the religious leaders in Seville and claimed that they were responsible for electing Martinez in a position of such power and they ordered that he right his wrongdoings to the Jews, that he rebuild their synagogues, and that he be removed from his religious position.^[3] In response to the crown's orders, Martinez claimed that the crown had no authority over him and that he was subject to only the Catholic church. He ignored his orders to rebuild the synagogues and stop preaching against the Jews.^[3]

Martinez' refusal to obey the crown's orders only illustrated his zeal for his belief that he was doing the right thing by persecuting the Jews, and his followers shared the same zeal because he had been riling them up for so long.^[3] As his preaching of violence against the Jews continued, so did the uneasiness of the mob as they were anxiously awaiting the opportunity to attack and raid the Jews.^[3] Around March the mob broke out and plundered and killed Jews, and while they were stopped from even further violence, the antisemitic mob mentality had already spread to nearby cities.^[3]

Violence in 1391

Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391 (Josep Segrelles, c. 1910) Matanza de judios en Barcelona - ano 1391.jpg — *Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391* (Josep Segrelles, c. 1910)

Violence in Seville and Castile

Martinez continued to stir up the people against the Jews as he preached that they should be forced to convert to Christianity.^[3] Violence finally erupted on June 6th^[1] when around 4,000 Jews in Seville were murdered, their houses were attacked and destroyed, and those that weren't killed were terrified into converting in an attempt to not be murdered as well.^[3]

The violence against the Jews originated in Castile, and acted as a catalyst for further violence against the Jews.^[4] This pattern of violence continued through over 70 other cities and towns within three months,^[1] as city after city followed the example set in Seville and Jews faced either conversion and baptism or death, their homes were attacked, and the authorities did nothing to stop or prevent the violence and pillaging of the Jewish people.^[3] As this fanaticism and persecution spread throughout the rest of the kingdom of Castile, there was no accountability held for the murders and sacking of the Jewish houses, and estimations claim that there were 50,000 victims (though it is likely this number was exaggerated).^[3]

Violence in Aragon

This religious mob spread even to Aragon, as the authorities could do nothing to prevent the same pattern of plunder, murder, and fanaticism (although it did not go completely unpunished).^[3]

About 100,000 Jews in Aragon converted rather than face death or attempt to flee.^[3]

Valencia

One of the first of the cities the antisemitic violence spread to was the city of Valencia in the kingdom of Aragon.^[1]

After the violence in Seville and Castile, on June 28th, Queen Violant of Aragon ordered city officials to be especially protective of the Jews.^[1] However, the situation continued to escalate and in July Prince Martin (King John's brother) was placed in charge of protecting the Jews against persecution.^[1] Martin had gallows set up outside the Jewish area as a threat to those who would be inclined to attack the Jews, extra surveillance for security, and criers would go around proclaiming that the Jews were under the crown's protection (although the criers were revoked on July 6th).^[1]

The Jews in Valencia were attacked on July 9th.^[1] The violence started out with several youths outside the Jewish community shouting that the Jews should convert or be killed, and the situation continued to escalate to the point of violence.^[1] As a crowd began to gather, they began throwing stones at the guards, and, against MartÍ's attempts to stop the crowd, they used pipes to break through the walls and forcefully enter the gates of the Jewish community and attack the Jews.^[1] The Jewish houses were pillaged and they themselves were killed and raped by the angry mob.^[1] Prince MartÍ recorded that nearly 300 Jews had been killed that day and that there weren't any Jews left who could have been baptized.^[1] Other sources claim around 230 Jews were murdered and many of the remainders were forced to be convert.^[4] There were around 2,500 Jews in the community, and only about 200 escaped murder and conversion.^[4]

While MartÍ was quick to state that this violence against the Jews could have only been explained as judgment from God, King John was not so willing to give up his sovereignty over his people who had explicitly disobeyed both him and his brother, who was present at the attack trying to prevent it.^[1] John told MartÍ that there must be harsh consequences and that the mob must be brutally punished lest the violence spread and cause harm to more Jews.^[1] As punishment, MartÍ imprisoned several of the attackers and had a man hung (he had tried to attack Muslims).^[1] King John criticized his brother's minimal punishments for such brazen disobedience to the crown, and said that he would have had three to four hundred people killed, but now they must put the law on hold and serve punishment on their own.^[1]

Around 11,000 Jews in Valencia converted rather than face death or attempt to flee.^[3]

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References

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Nirenberg, David (20 October 2014). "Neighboring Faiths: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in the Middle Ages and Today". ebookcentral.proquest.com. University of Chicago Press. pp. 75–88. Retrieved 2018-11-06.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Freund, Scarlett; Ruiz. "Jews, Conversos, and the Inquisition in Spain, 1391-1492: The Ambiguities of History". American University Studies. Peter Lang Publishing. 136: 169–195 – via Jewish-Christian Encounters over the Centuries: Symbiosis, Prejudice, Holocaust, Dialogue.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Lea, Henry Charles (January 1896). "Ferrand Martinez and the Massacres of 1391". The American Historical Review. 1 (2): 209–219. doi:10.2307/1833647. JSTOR 1833647.
1 2 3 4 Meyerson, Mark (2004). Jews in an Iberian Frontier Kingdom: Society, Economy, and Politics in Morvedre, 1248-1391. Brill. pp. 272–281. ISBN 90 04 13739 4.

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[Nirenberg_2018-1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Nirenberg, David (20 October 2014). "Neighboring Faiths: Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in the Middle Ages and Today". ebookcentral.proquest.com. University of Chicago Press. pp. 75–88. Retrieved 2018-11-06.

[Freund-2] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Freund, Scarlett; Ruiz. "Jews, Conversos, and the Inquisition in Spain, 1391-1492: The Ambiguities of History". American University Studies. Peter Lang Publishing. 136: 169–195 – via Jewish-Christian Encounters over the Centuries: Symbiosis, Prejudice, Holocaust, Dialogue.

[Lea_1896-3] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Lea, Henry Charles (January 1896). "Ferrand Martinez and the Massacres of 1391". The American Historical Review. 1 (2): 209–219. doi:10.2307/1833647. JSTOR 1833647.

[Meyerson_2004-4] 1 2 3 4 Meyerson, Mark (2004). Jews in an Iberian Frontier Kingdom: Society, Economy, and Politics in Morvedre, 1248-1391. Brill. pp. 272–281. ISBN 90 04 13739 4.