Theories of love

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Theories of love can refer to several psychological and sociological theories:

Contents

Love

Love is a complex, ever-changing concept that has evolved over the course of time. [1] Different societies, cultures, and eras have attached different values to the word and have different perspectives on the concept. In the 17th century, one's family would pick the person one was going to marry based on social class and economic status. In some cultures, girls are married by the age of fourteen or even younger. In traditional definitions of love, love has been compared to God because of the power it has over those who believe in it. Love has the ability to be the source of human happiness, a sense of worth, and a source of healing from hurt or suffering. [2]

In the 18th century, romantic love expressed sensibility and authenticity as it stood for "the truth of feeling". [3] Many people view love as the reason for living. Symbolic interaction theorists believe that shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motives behind people's actions. [4] : 31  Cultural norms regarding the experience of love vary so that the emphasis in relationships is on sexual attraction, romantic courtship, intimate friendship, or commitment.

Although love can be the motive for some people's actions and bring people joy, love can also bring us sadness. "Love does us no good if we love the wrong person." [5] : 1  When people open their hearts and show their flaws, vulnerabilities, and weaknesses to the wrong person, it can result in heartbreak, then causing feelings of regret. So why do humans deal with such a complicated thing such as love? Humans "need to love and to be loved". [5] : 1 

The four types of love described in philosophy include agape, phileo, storge, and eros. Agape is a type of unconditional love that is less common in society but more apparent between individuals and their god. Phileo is a love used to describe friendship between individuals. This love is commonly seen between friends in public, especially as displays of warm gestures. Storge is another type of love that is expressed through parenting. Eros is a romantic love that was a type of love forbidden in early society and is still forbidden in some societies today. [6] These different types of love are expressed differently based on culture.

Culture

Love is expressed in a multitude of forms, dependent on location and societal norms. [7] Expressions of love can include acts such as self-sacrifice, compromise, courting, kissing, sex, and physical contact. [8] Different cultures have adopted different customs; for instance, in Japan, public displays of affection are discouraged, and individuals typically express adoration in private. In France, people show their love by holding hands, kissing, and initiating sexual relationships. The United States has a different perspective on love. People believe in going on dates, having casual sex, and are open to meeting new people on social media or dating apps. Customs in the U.S. are generally more liberal when compared to other parts of the world. Marital traditions are largely cultural as well.

Marriage customs

Marriage is a legally binding union of two individuals who have commit to each other as partners in a personal relationship. However, the definition of marriage varies widely by culture, region, and jurisdiction. [9] In the 19th century, many marriages were enforced by the parents of the individuals to satisfy political or economic factors in families. [10] In India, arranged marriages and dowries remain a current practice. [11] Elopement, also known as love marriage, has increased substantially in some parts of India. [12] Marriage in Japan is more liberal in relation to arranged marriage, initially beginning with courtship that would allow love to develop, then eventually lead to marriage. [13] In the United States, marriage customs vary, dependent on the desires of the individuals family, the individuals cultural background, and societal pressures. [14]

Societal factors

Factors such as gender, race, economic status, age, religion, education, and ethnicity can influence an individual's views on both marriage and love. [15] Shared expectations of age-appropriate behavior can pressure an individual into marriage. [16] Depictions of love in social media and film also influence and pressure individuals in relation to love, and can potentially impact the expectations what marriage and should look like. [17] Young adults are predominantly influenced by unrealistic depictions of love, witnessed in film and social media. For example, The Notebook depicts love as a force that can conquer all, the idealisation of one's partner, and the idea of soulmates. [18]

Necessity of love

Love allows people to attribute a sense of purpose for living. [19] From the moment of birth, relationships are made: mother and child, father and child, grandparent and child, and the like. As people grow older and enter into schools, jobs, and get involved in their communities the number of relationships, they have grown, as does their ability to maintain these relationships. Love can have a powerful effect on the human body. Irving Singer wrote, "For a person in love … life is never without meaning." [20] : 2  A person's life is built the love between two people – their parents, the love they share for the friendships they make and eventually, the person they marry and have children of their own with. The feelings love brings: happiness, empathy, mutual respect, a sense of purpose, can lead to stronger motivation, less stress, a positive outlook on life, and hope. [19] : xi 

Love allows humans to communicate through their emotions. To love effectively, one has to love themselves first: to love another person's flaws and quirks, one has to love their own flaws and quirks. [19] : x 

Humans are not the only species in the world that can feel love and its effects. Non-human animals can feel love as well, although it is less complex and less creative. [20] : 19  Many animals feel emotions. When a dog wags its tail or licks its owner after being parted for a few hours, this is interpreted as happiness. When a person leaves for work in the morning and their dog cries at the window, it exhibits sadness. A growling dog who doesn't like it when someone touches its favorite toy is showing anger. Animals can feel love as well as other basic emotions humans feel. Dogs that grow up with siblings create strong bonds with their siblings. If their sibling dies, the dog can go into depression and refuse to eat.

Love holds a higher significance than many people might assume. For example, Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, developed a theory called "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs". [21] In this hierarchy, Maslow presents the different levels of priorities and needs we have as human beings. Maslow has listed physiological needs as the first essential need of human beings. Following physiological needs is safety needs which include the innate need for security, health, jobs, work, etc. Finally in third comes the need for belonging. Maslow describes this need as love, affection, family, friends, and intimacy. Although Maslow lists belonging on the third tier of the hierarchy of needs, one may argue that the sense of belonging, along with love and affection, could be the foundation of the pyramid of needs. When we explore the possibilities and actions that people take for love, it is clear how powerful it can be. For example, parents who are willing to risk their lives or die in the place of their child would be putting their belonging needs over their physiological need of safety. [22] The motivation to express and feel love may overpower any physiological need that humans have.

Types of love

Humans come across different types of love as they reach different levels of maturity in their life, such as the love a mother feels for their child, the love that involves the instant attraction to a person, and the love that comes from years of being together. The love humans share for their family and friends can be viewed as "slow love". This love is based on finding shared interests and lifestyles that connect people to each other. [23] : 11  It is a love that can be carried out because of the common interests that bind them together. It is more of a mental attraction than a physical attraction. Visually, we make interpretations of love based on the way a person looks. "Harmonism" and "echoism" are the ways a face is constructed that make one physically attractive: the distance between the forehead and nose, the distance between the mouth and chin, how close the eyes are together, and the sweep of one's eyebrows. [23] : 10  The biochemical level fluctuation of a person can also explain the question "Who We Love". People who have expressive traits, such as curiosity and liveliness, tend to be drawn to people who have similar personalities. People who are cautious and socially conforming are attracted to their same kind as well. However, people who are foremost with expressive traits of sex hormones tend to be enchanted by their opposite kinds. People with a relatively high testosterone hormone are analytical and tough-minded. [24] They tend to choose people with a relatively high estrogen hormone who are empathetic and pro-social. Besides the biochemical level explanation, there are also a few other elements that affect people's choices of mates. Another factor that influences who people choose to love is timing. Love can happen when one least expects it. Furthermore, people more easily fall in love when they are emotionally aroused, especially in a hard and lonely time. This is because such a mental state is associated with arousal mechanisms in the brain and elevated levels of stress hormones, both of which increase the level of the romantic passion hormone: dopamine. Distance is another element that influences people's love choices: people tend to choose to fall in love with those close to them. [25] Childhood experience also influences mate choices. By the teenage years, people gradually construct a catalog of aptitudes and mannerisms they are looking for in a mate. Subtle differences in their experiences shape romantic tastes. [26] Physical looks matter as well. From an anthropological point of view, a male tends to choose a female with a visual sign of youth and beauty, which indicates her high oestrogen level and strong reproductive ability. However, a female with a more pragmatic and realistic goal, tends to choose a male with education, ambition, wealth, respect, status and masculine appearance. [27]

Another reason why we love who we love has to do with culture and history. [4] : 371  Take incest, for example. In some Western cultures, falling in love with one's first cousin could be seen as possibly 'taboo' and therefore morally and lawfully wrong. However, it is legal to marry one's cousin in many Western countries, e.g. the UK. Similarly, in some Muslim tribes, it is perfectly acceptable to fall in love with one's cousin. In the past, kissing cousins in Western societies were not uncommon. In addition, in the past, mixed-race marriages were illegal in the United States. This led to people only marrying people of the same race. However, now that the society of the United States has changed drastically, it is common and completely acceptable to find couples of different races.

Another type of love people come across in their life is sexual love. As an individual crosses over from a child to a teen to an adult, this type of love becomes more relevant in their life. According to Milligan, "Sexualized intimate love is delusional and requires an overestimation of the person we love." [5] : 2  A sexual love is a misconception of the person's beauty, intelligence, or charm. This type of love can reveal a lot about the person who's feeling such strong passionate feelings. It gives more insight into the lover than it gives about the loved one. Sexual love is not love at first sight – it is basic human instinct and hormonal responses. [20] : 20 

Attachment Theory of Love

Psychiatrist and psychologist John Bowlby was the first to develop the attachment theory of love in Western culture. [28] It focuses on the relationships or attachments that form between people. It starts with attachments made in infancy, stating that it is important for children to have a relationship with their primary caregivers in order to experience normal development. Though the underlying concepts originated in Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation research, Bowlby organized the concepts into a more comprehensive theory. [29] There are three tenets of this theory:

  1. The creation of bonds is an intrinsic need.
  2. Emotions and fear need to be regulated to increase vitality.
  3. Adaptiveness and growth need to be encouraged.

According to this theory, one person in the relationship uses the other person as a "secure base", exploring the world from this person and using them as a safe place to return to when stressed or experiencing perceived danger. Bowlby's theory was extended from infants to adults by Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver. [30] There is a transition of this attachment from the parent to a peer in adulthood. It is thought that proximity-seeking behavior is the first thing needed for this transition to occur. [31] Much like the attachment styles identified in infants, there were four attachment styles identified for adults. These styles are secure, anxious -preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant. [32] These attachment theories can influence adults differently in their romantic lives.

Secure-Attachment

Adults who have a secure attachment style will be good at conflict resolution, be flexible in their thinking, communicate effectively, not be manipulative, have no fear of being enmeshed, hold the belief that they can positively impact their relationship, and care for their partner in the way that they wish to be cared for. They understand that there are a multitude of potential partners that could fulfill their needs and, therefore, feel confident leaving a partner that does not meet their needs. Research suggests that only one partner with a secure attachment style is necessary for a relationship to function in a healthy manner. [33]

Anxious-Preoccupied Attachment

Adults who have an anxious-preoccupied attachment style tend to become overly dependent on their partners. They typically have trust issues, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of worry in their relationships. It is believed that these individuals may not have been able to develop the necessary defenses against separation anxiety and this leads to an emotional reaction to the perceived threat of separation. [34] This thought pattern can lead these individuals to self-sabotage, causing them to tend to go after partners with a dismissive-avoidant style. [35]

Dismissive-Avoidant Attachment

Adults with a dismissive-avoidant attachment style want to be independent. This desire for independence can lead these individuals to avoid relationships. They often have a hard time trusting other people and also view themselves highly. Their high self-esteem is supported by over-emphasizing their competency and achievements. It is thought that this attachment style stems from trying to avoid being rejected or truly having no interest in being close to other people. [36]

Fearful-Avoidant Attachment

Lastly, adults with a fearful-avoidant attachment style are not sure how they feel about intimate relationships. They have conflicting feelings of wanting emotional intimacy and feeling uncomfortable with it. They have trouble trusting others. They often feel that they are unworthy of affection. They also tend to avoid intimacy, or at least do not seek it out. [37] [38]

Criticism of Attachment Theory

There are still areas of this theory that have not been explored, such as contextual attachment within relationships. [39] There has also been criticism for this theory. This includes criticism over Bowlby's wording of "partial deprivation" to describe a relationship with a caregiver that is unsatisfying. Critics claim that this wording was too vague and allowed people to over-extend this to any issues within the parent-child relationship. Other criticism stems from Hilda Lewis’ research which was not able to show a connection between separation from the mother and behavior. There have also been some calls to remove attachment disorder from clinical psychology because some critics believe that there is no professional consensus on what "attachment" means and how it should be utilized in the clinical setting. [40]

Vertical and Horizontal Structure of Love

Vertical Structure

Social psychologist, Philips Shaver, and colleagues found that attachment processes could be represented in a hierarchy. By collecting data about males’ and females’ cognition of "Love", researchers used a prototype approach to investigate the concept of love. "Love" is a basic level that concept includes super-ordinate categories of emotions: affection, adoration, fondness, liking, attraction, caring, tenderness, compassion, arousal, desire, passion, and longing. Love contains large sub-clusters that designate generic forms of love: friendship, sibling relationship, marital relationship etc. Such as, "affection", similar to "companionate love" in social psychology field, is the term most strongly co-occurs with terms in its generic sub-cluster and not with other terms in other sub-cluster groups: "Affection" for example contrasts significantly with "passionate love", which belongs to the second large sub-cluster – "Lust". [41]

Horizontal Structure

Love can also be examined along a horizontal dimension with a prototype approach. Psychologists Beverley, Fehr and James Russell designed and conducted six experiments to examine the concept of love horizontally: Free Listing of Subtypes of Love; Rating the Goodness of Love Examples; Reaction Time to Verify Love Category Memberships; the Fuzzy Boarder of Love definition; the Sustainability of the Subcategory of Love; Love Subcategory Family Resemblances. For example, Beverly Fehr and James Russell examined the concept of love by carrying out the fifth experiment, the Sustainability of the Subcategory. They selected 10 sentences that defined "Love" written by one group of participants and 10 definitions of "Love" from textbooks. They asked other groups of participants to judge how weird or natural those sentences sounded when the word "Love" in those definitions was substituted by targeted sub-category terms. When a prototypical sub-type substituted, such as friendship, the sentence sounded subjectively natural. However, when a peripheral sub-type, such as infatuation, took the place of "Love" in the definitions, it yielded subjectively peculiar results. "In sum, Fehr identified a set of features of love that appear to have a clear prototype structure in terms of some features being better and some being poorer exemplars of the concept of love, and this difference appears to affect other aspects of the way love-related phenomena are processed." [42]

Later Arthur Aron and Lori Westbay expanded the underlying structure of love prototype of Fehr's research. To understand the way people deal with love-related information, Aron and Westbay examined the latent structure and individual differences within Fehr's subgroup structure with three validation tests. They concluded that people generally understand the concept of love centralizing around three dimensions (passion, intimacy and commitment) which correspond to Sternberg's triangular theory of love. An individual's prototype of love limits his or her experience of a relationship, but the degree of these three dimensions that the individual emphasizes on depends on circumstances of that relationship. [43] [44]

Love in the 21st century

Today, love is still highly valued in the Western society. Love is viewed as important and special. It is put on a pedestal, making it almost impossible to fulfill all the expectations that people have for their relationships and marriages. For example, with the rising of "promposals", which are extravagant ways of asking someone to prom, the ways that the expectations of romance [45] are increasing are illustrated. Today, sex lives are commonly flaunted rather than hidden as they used to be. [46] Compared to the past, people are more open to sexuality, promiscuity, and divorce. As the world continues to change the views on love, its significance will continue to modify as the minds of people change.

See also

Related Research Articles

In social psychology, an interpersonal relation describes a social association, connection, or affiliation between two or more persons. It overlaps significantly with the concept of social relations, which are the fundamental unit of analysis within the social sciences. Relations vary in degrees of intimacy, self-disclosure, duration, reciprocity, and power distribution. The main themes or trends of the interpersonal relations are: family, kinship, friendship, love, marriage, business, employment, clubs, neighborhoods, ethical values, support and solidarity. Interpersonal relations may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and form the basis of social groups and societies. They appear when people communicate or act with each other within specific social contexts, and they thrive on equitable and reciprocal compromises.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Romance (love)</span> Type of love that focuses on feelings

Romance or romantic love is a feeling of love for, or a strong attraction towards another person, and the courtship behaviors undertaken by an individual to express those overall feelings and resultant emotions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attachment theory</span> Psychological ethological theory about human relationships

An Attachment theory is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory concerning relationships between humans. The most important tenet is that young children need to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for normal social and emotional development. The theory was formulated by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby (1907-1990).

Interpersonal attraction, as a part of social psychology, is the study of the attraction between people which leads to the development of platonic or romantic relationships. It is distinct from perceptions such as physical attractiveness, and involves views of what is and what is not considered beautiful or attractive.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intimate relationship</span> Physical or emotional intimacy

An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves emotional or physical closeness between people and may include sexual intimacy and feelings of romance or love. Intimate relationships are interdependent, and the members of the relationship mutually influence each other. The quality and nature of the relationship depends on the interactions between individuals, and is derived from the unique context and history that builds between people over time. Social and legal institutions such as marriage acknowledge and uphold intimate relationships between people. However, intimate relationships are not necessarily monogamous or sexual, and there is wide social and cultural variability in the norms and practices of intimacy between people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social rejection</span> Deliberate exclusion of an individual from social relationship or social interaction

Social rejection occurs when an individual is deliberately excluded from a social relationship or social interaction. The topic includes interpersonal rejection, romantic rejection, and familial estrangement. A person can be rejected or shunned by individuals or an entire group of people. Furthermore, rejection can be either active by bullying, teasing, or ridiculing, or passive by ignoring a person, or giving the "silent treatment". The experience of being rejected is subjective for the recipient, and it can be perceived when it is not actually present. The word "ostracism" is also commonly used to denote a process of social exclusion.

Dependency need is "the vital, originally infantile needs for mothering, love, affection, shelter, protection, security, food, and warmth."

Caring in intimate relationships is the practice of providing care and support to an intimate relationship partner. Caregiving behaviours are aimed at reducing the partner's distress and supporting their coping efforts in situations of either threat or challenge. Caregiving may include emotional support and/or instrumental support. Effective caregiving behaviour enhances the care-recipient's psychological well-being, as well as the quality of the relationship between the caregiver and the care-recipient. However, certain suboptimal caregiving strategies may be either ineffective or even detrimental to coping.

In psychology, an affectional bond is a type of attachment behavior one individual has for another individual, typically a caregiver for their child, in which the two partners tend to remain in proximity to one another. The term was coined and subsequently developed over the course of four decades, from the early 1940s to the late 1970s, by psychologist John Bowlby in his work on attachment theory. The core of the term affectional bond, according to Bowlby, is the attraction one individual has for another individual. The central features of the concept of affectional bonding can be traced to Bowlby's 1958 paper, "The Nature of the Child's Tie to his Mother".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Attachment in children</span> Biological instinct

Attachment in children is "a biological instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort. Attachment behaviour anticipates a response by the attachment figure which will remove threat or discomfort". Attachment also describes the function of availability, which is the degree to which the authoritative figure is responsive to the child's needs and shares communication with them. Childhood attachment can define characteristics that will shape the child's sense of self, their forms of emotion-regulation, and how they carry out relationships with others. Attachment is found in all mammals to some degree, especially primates.

In psychology, the theory of attachment can be applied to adult relationships including friendships, emotional affairs, adult romantic and carnal relationships and, in some cases, relationships with inanimate objects. Attachment theory, initially studied in the 1960s and 1970s primarily in the context of children and parents, was extended to adult relationships in the late 1980s. The working models of children found in Bowlby's attachment theory form a pattern of interaction that is likely to continue influencing adult relationships.

Social connection is the experience of feeling close and connected to others. It involves feeling loved, cared for, and valued, and forms the basis of interpersonal relationships.

"Connection is the energy that exists between people when they feel seen, heard and valued; when they can give and receive without judgement; and when they derive sustenance and strength from the relationship." —Brené Brown, Professor of social work at the University of Houston

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Belongingness</span> Human emotional need

Belongingness is the human emotional need to be an accepted member of a group. Whether it is family, friends, co-workers, a religion, or something else, some people tend to have an 'inherent' desire to belong and be an important part of something greater than themselves. This implies a relationship that is greater than simple acquaintance or familiarity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of attachment theory</span>

Attachment theory, originating in the work of John Bowlby, is a psychological, evolutionary and ethological theory that provides a descriptive and explanatory framework for understanding interpersonal relationships between human beings.

Mark Richard Leary is a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University. His research has made significant contributions to the fields of social psychology and personality psychology.

Attachment theory and psychology of religion research explores the ways that a belief in God can fulfill the criteria of an attachment figure and examines how individual differences in attachment lead to correspondence or compensation pathways.

<i>Motivation and Personality</i> A book by Abraham Maslow published in 1954

Motivation and Personality is a book on psychology by Abraham Maslow, first published in 1954. Maslow's work deals with the subject of the nature of human fulfillment and the significance of personal relationships, implementing a conceptualization of self-actualization. Underachievers have a need for social love and affection, but a self-actualized person has these "lower" needs to be gratified and is able to pursue his or her own path towards self-actualization.

Attachment and health is a psychological model which considers how the attachment theory pertains to people's preferences and expectations for the proximity of others when faced with stress, threat, danger or pain. In 1982, American psychiatrist Lawrence Kolb noticed that patients with chronic pain displayed behaviours with their healthcare providers akin to what children might display with an attachment figure, thus marking one of the first applications of the attachment theory to physical health. Development of the adult attachment theory and adult attachment measures in the 1990s provided researchers with the means to apply the attachment theory to health in a more systematic way. Since that time, it has been used to understand variations in stress response, health outcomes and health behaviour. Ultimately, the application of the attachment theory to health care may enable health care practitioners to provide more personalized medicine by creating a deeper understanding of patient distress and allowing clinicians to better meet their needs and expectations.

Internal working model of attachment is a psychological approach that attempts to describe the development of mental representations, specifically the worthiness of the self and expectations of others' reactions to the self. This model is a result of interactions with primary caregivers which become internalized, and is therefore an automatic process. John Bowlby implemented this model in his attachment theory in order to explain how infants act in accordance with these mental representations. It is an important aspect of general attachment theory.

Relationship science is an interdisciplinary field dedicated to the scientific study of interpersonal relationship processes. Due to its interdisciplinary nature, relationship science is made-up of researchers of various professional backgrounds within psychology and outside of psychology, but most researchers who identify with the field are psychologists by training. Additionally, the field's emphasis has historically been close and intimate relationships, which includes predominantly dating and married couples, parent-child relationships, and friendships & social networks, but some also study less salient social relationships such as colleagues and acquaintances.

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  30. ↑ Hazan, Cindy; Shaver, Phillip (1987). "Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 52 (3): 511–524. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511. ISSN   1939-1315. PMID   3572722. S2CID   2280613.
  31. ↑ Crowell, Judith A.; Waters, Everett (January 1994). "Bowlby's Theory Grown Up: The Role of Attachment in Adult Love Relationships". Psychological Inquiry. 5 (1): 31–34. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0501_4. ISSN   1047-840X.
  32. ↑ Hazan, Cindy; Shaver, Phillip R. (1990). "Love and work: An attachment-theoretical perspective". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59 (2): 270–280. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.270. ISSN   0022-3514.
  33. ↑ Bradley, Nigel (2011-09-13). "Twitterville. How Businesses Can Thrive in the New Global Neighborhoods". Journal of Consumer Marketing. 28 (6): 461–462. doi:10.1108/07363761111165994. ISSN   0736-3761.
  34. ↑ Lyons, Lisa Sandow; Sperling, Michael B. (1996), "Clinical applications of attachment theory: Empirical and theoretical perspectives.", Psychoanalytic perspectives on developmental psychology., Washington: American Psychological Association, pp. 221–256, doi:10.1037/10219-006, ISBN   1-55798-385-2 , retrieved 2021-11-27
  35. ↑ Oskis, Andrea, ed. (2018-09-03), "Not trying to avoid the bridge: avoidant attachment from research to clinical practice", Attachment and the Defence Against Intimacy, Routledge, pp. 23–36, doi:10.4324/9780429447860-2, ISBN   978-0-429-44786-0, S2CID   240277598 , retrieved 2021-11-27
  36. ↑ Carvallo, Mauricio; Gabriel, Shira (2006). "No man is an island: The need to belong and dismissing avoidant attachment style: (511092014-160)". doi:10.1037/e511092014-160.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  37. ↑ Hazan, Cindy; Shaver, Phillip R. (January 1994). "Attachment as an Organizational Framework for Research on Close Relationships". Psychological Inquiry. 5 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0501_1. ISSN   1047-840X.
  38. ↑ Bartholomew, Kim; Horowitz, Leonard M. (1991). "Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 61 (2): 226–244. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226. ISSN   1939-1315. PMID   1920064. S2CID   3547883.
  39. ↑ Lai, Ya-Hsin; Carr, Sam (2018-12-11). "A Critical Exploration of Child-Parent Attachment as a Contextual Construct". Behavioral Sciences. 8 (12): 112. doi: 10.3390/bs8120112 . ISSN   2076-328X. PMC   6315501 . PMID   30544893.
  40. ↑ Fitzgerald, Joshua Jacob (2020-03-10), "Mistaken Places", Place Meaning and Attachment, Routledge, pp. 80–91, doi:10.4324/9780367232689-7, ISBN   978-0-367-23268-9, S2CID   242784593 , retrieved 2021-11-27
  41. ↑ Shaver, P.; Schwartz, J.; Kirson, D.; O'Connor, C. (June 1987). "Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 52 (6): 1061–1086. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061. ISSN   0022-3514. PMID   3598857.
  42. ↑ Fehr, Beverley; Russell, James A. (1991). "The concept of love viewed from a prototype perspective". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 60 (3): 425–438. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.425. ISSN   0022-3514.
  43. ↑ Aron, Arthur; Westbay, Lori (1996). "Dimensions of the prototype of love". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70 (3): 535–551. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.535. ISSN   1939-1315.
  44. ↑ Regan, Pamela (2008). The Mating Game: A Primer on Love, Sex, and Marriage . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi:10.4135/9781452274812. ISBN   978-1-4129-5705-2.
  45. ↑ "Love-Romance – Articles, Blogs, Comments, Discussions, Postings | ispace1". ispace1.com. Retrieved 2020-11-07.
  46. ↑ Bruckner, Pascal; Randall, Steven; Golsan, Richard (2012). The Paradox of Love. Princeton University Press. p. 142. ISBN   978-1-4008-4185-1 – via ProQuest ebrary.
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