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In computer programming, a trait is a language concept that represents a set of methods that can be used to extend the functionality of a class. [1] [2]
In object-oriented programming, behavior is sometimes shared between classes which are not related to each other. For example, many unrelated classes may have methods to serialize objects to JSON. Historically, there have been several approaches to solve this without duplicating the code in every class needing the behavior. Other approaches include multiple inheritance and mixins, but these have drawbacks: the behavior of the code may unexpectedly change if the order in which the mixins are applied is altered, or if new methods are added to the parent classes or mixins.
Traits solve these problems by allowing classes to use the trait and get the desired behavior. If a class uses more than one trait, the order in which the traits are used does not matter. The methods provided by the traits have direct access to the data of the class.
Traits combine aspects of protocols (interfaces) and mixins. Like an interface, a trait defines one or more method signatures, of which implementing classes must provide implementations. Like a mixin, a trait provides additional behavior for the implementing class.
In case of a naming collision between methods provided by different traits, the programmer must explicitly disambiguate which one of those methods will be used in the class; thus manually solving the diamond problem of multiple inheritance. This is different from other composition methods in object-oriented programming, where conflicting names are automatically resolved by scoping rules.
Operations which can be performed with traits include: [3] [4]
If a method is excluded from a trait, that method must be provided by the class that consumes the trait, or by a parent class of that class. This is because the methods provided by the trait might call the excluded method.
Trait composition is commutative (i.e. given traits A and B, A + B is equivalent to B + A) and associative (i.e. given traits A, B, and C, (A + B) + C is equivalent to A + (B + C)). [1]
While traits offer significant advantages over many alternatives, they do have their own limitations.
If a trait requires the consuming class to provide certain methods, the trait cannot know if those methods are semantically equivalent to the trait's needs. For some dynamic languages, such as Perl, the required method can only be identified by a method name, not a full method signature, making it harder to guarantee that the required method is appropriate.
If a method is excluded from a trait, that method becomes a 'required' method for the trait because the trait's other methods might call it.
Traits come originally from the programming language Self [5] and are supported by the following programming languages:
using
keywordtrait
.On C# 8.0, it is possible to define an implementation as a member of an interface.
usingSystem;namespaceCSharp8NewFeatures;interfaceILogger{// Traditional interface methodsvoidLog(stringmessage);voidLogError(Exceptionexception);// Default interface methodvoidLogWarning(stringmessage){Console.WriteLine(message);}}classLogger:ILogger{publicvoidLog(stringmessage){Console.WriteLine(message);}publicvoidLogError(Exceptionexception){Console.WriteLine(exception.ToString());}}classProgram{staticvoidMain(string[]args){ILoggerlogger=newLogger();logger.LogWarning("Some warning message");}}
This example uses a trait to enhance other classes:
// The templatetraitTSingleton{privatestatic$_instance=null;privatefunction__construct(){}// Must have private default constructor and be aware not to open it in the classpublicstaticfunctiongetInstance(){if(null===self::$_instance){self::$_instance=newself();}returnself::$_instance;}}classFrontController{useTSingleton;}// Can also be used in already extended classesclassWebSiteextendsSomeClass{useTSingleton;}
This allows simulating aspects of multiple inheritance:
traitTBounding{public$x,$y,$width,$height;}traitTMoveable{publicfunctionmoveTo($x,$y){// …}}traitTResizeable{publicfunctionresize($newWidth,$newHeight){// …}}classRectangle{useTBounding,TMoveable,TResizeable;publicfunctionfillColor($color){// …}}
A trait in Rust declares a set of methods that a type must implement. [44] Rust compilers require traits to be explicated, which ensures the safety of generics in Rust.
// type T must have the "Ord" trait// so that ">" and "<" operations can be donefnmax<T: Ord>(a: &[T])-> Option<&T>{letmutresult=a.first()?;fornina{if*n>*result{result=&n;}}Some(result)}
To simplify tedious and repeated implementation of traits like Debug
and Ord
, the derive
macro can be used to request compilers to generate certain implementations automatically. [45] Derivable traits include: Clone
, Copy
, Debug
, Default
, PartialEq
, Eq
, PartialOrd
, Ord
and Hash
.
In object-oriented programming, a class defines the shared aspects of objects created from the class. The capabilities of a class differ between programming languages, but generally the shared aspects consist of state (variables) and behavior (methods) that are each either associated with a particular object or with all objects of that class.
Multiple inheritance is a feature of some object-oriented computer programming languages in which an object or class can inherit features from more than one parent object or parent class. It is distinct from single inheritance, where an object or class may only inherit from one particular object or class.
In object-oriented programming, an interface or protocol type is a data type that acts as an abstraction of a class. It describes a set of method signatures, the implementations of which may be provided by multiple classes that are otherwise not necessarily related to each other. A class which provides the methods listed in a protocol is said to adopt the protocol, or to implement the interface.
Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.
In object-oriented programming languages, a mixin is a class that contains methods for use by other classes without having to be the parent class of those other classes. How those other classes gain access to the mixin's methods depends on the language. Mixins are sometimes described as being "included" rather than "inherited".
The fragile base class problem is a fundamental architectural problem of object-oriented programming systems where base classes (superclasses) are considered "fragile" because seemingly safe modifications to a base class, when inherited by the derived classes, may cause the derived classes to malfunction. The programmer cannot determine whether a base class change is safe simply by examining in isolation the methods of the base class.
In object-oriented programming such as is often used in C++ and Object Pascal, a virtual function or virtual method is an inheritable and overridable function or method that is dispatched dynamically. Virtual functions are an important part of (runtime) polymorphism in object-oriented programming (OOP). They allow for the execution of target functions that were not precisely identified at compile time.
In computer programming, named parameters, named-parameter arguments, named arguments or keyword arguments refer to a computer language's support for function calls to clearly associate each argument with a given parameter within the function call.
In computer programming, a callback is a function that is stored as data and designed to be called by another function – often back to the original abstraction layer.
In object-oriented programming, inheritance is the mechanism of basing an object or class upon another object or class, retaining similar implementation. Also defined as deriving new classes from existing ones such as super class or base class and then forming them into a hierarchy of classes. In most class-based object-oriented languages like C++, an object created through inheritance, a "child object", acquires all the properties and behaviors of the "parent object", with the exception of: constructors, destructors, overloaded operators and friend functions of the base class. Inheritance allows programmers to create classes that are built upon existing classes, to specify a new implementation while maintaining the same behaviors, to reuse code and to independently extend original software via public classes and interfaces. The relationships of objects or classes through inheritance give rise to a directed acyclic graph.
Programming languages are used for controlling the behavior of a machine. Like natural languages, programming languages follow rules for syntax and semantics.
In mathematical logic and computer science, some type theories and type systems include a top type that is commonly denoted with top or the symbol ⊤. The top type is sometimes called also universal type, or universal supertype as all other types in the type system of interest are subtypes of it, and in most cases, it contains every possible object of the type system. It is in contrast with the bottom type, or the universal subtype, which every other type is supertype of and it is often that the type contains no members at all.
In programming languages, an abstract type is a type in a nominative type system that cannot be instantiated directly; by contrast, a concrete typecan be instantiated directly. Instantiation of an abstract type can occur only indirectly, via a concrete subtype.
An interface in the Java programming language is an abstract type that is used to declare a behavior that classes must implement. They are similar to protocols. Interfaces are declared using the interface
keyword, and may only contain method signature and constant declarations. All methods of an Interface do not contain implementation as of all versions below Java 8. Starting with Java 8, default
and static
methods may have implementation in the interface
definition. Then, in Java 9, private
and private static
methods were added. At present, a Java interface can have up to six different types.
In computer programming, an enumerated type is a data type consisting of a set of named values called elements, members, enumeral, or enumerators of the type. The enumerator names are usually identifiers that behave as constants in the language. An enumerated type can be seen as a degenerate tagged union of unit type. A variable that has been declared as having an enumerated type can be assigned any of the enumerators as a value. In other words, an enumerated type has values that are different from each other, and that can be compared and assigned, but are not specified by the programmer as having any particular concrete representation in the computer's memory; compilers and interpreters can represent them arbitrarily.
Moose is an extension of the object system of the Perl programming language. Its stated purpose is to bring modern object-oriented programming language features to Perl 5, and to make object-oriented Perl programming more consistent and less tedious.
Composition over inheritance in object-oriented programming (OOP) is the principle that classes should favor polymorphic behavior and code reuse by their composition over inheritance from a base or parent class. Ideally all reuse can be achieved by assembling existing components, but in practice inheritance is often needed to make new ones. Therefore inheritance and object composition typically work hand-in-hand, as discussed in the book Design Patterns (1994).
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of objects, which can contain data and code: data in the form of fields, and code in the form of procedures. In OOP, computer programs are designed by making them out of objects that interact with one another.
Kotlin is a cross-platform, statically typed, general-purpose high-level programming language with type inference. Kotlin is designed to interoperate fully with Java, and the JVM version of Kotlin's standard library depends on the Java Class Library, but type inference allows its syntax to be more concise. Kotlin mainly targets the JVM, but also compiles to JavaScript or native code via LLVM. Language development costs are borne by JetBrains, while the Kotlin Foundation protects the Kotlin trademark.
A strongly typed identifier is user-defined data type which serves as an identifier or key that is strongly typed. This is a solution to the "primitive obsession" code smell as mentioned by Martin Fowler. The data type should preferably be immutable if possible. It is common for implementations to handle equality testing, serialization and model binding.
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