Trypophobia

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The holes in lotus seed heads elicit feelings of discomfort or repulsion in some people. Nelumbo Nucifera fruit - botanic garden Adelaide.jpg
The holes in lotus seed heads elicit feelings of discomfort or repulsion in some people.

Trypophobia is an aversion to the sight of repetitive patterns or clusters of small holes or bumps. [3] [4] [5] It is not officially recognized as a mental disorder, but may be diagnosed as a specific phobia if excessive fear and distress occur. [1] [4] Most affected people experience mainly disgust when they see trypophobic imagery. [4] A minority of people experience the same level of fear and disgust, and a few express only disgust or fear. [4]

Contents

The scientific understanding of trypophobia is limited. [4] Although few studies have been done on trypophobia, researchers hypothesize that it is the result of a biological revulsion that associates trypophobic shapes with danger or disease, and may therefore have an evolutionary basis. [1] [4] Exposure therapy is a possible treatment. [1]

The term trypophobia was coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005. [6] It has since become a popular topic on social media. [7]

Classification

Trypophobia is not recognized by name as a mental disorder, and so is not a specific diagnosis in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). However, it may fall under the broad category of specific phobia if it involves fear that is excessive, persistent, and associated with significant distress or impairment. [1]

Whether trypophobia can be accurately described as a specific phobia might depend on whether the person mainly responds with fear or with disgust. Because phobias involve fear, a response to trypophobic imagery that is based mostly or solely on disgust renders its status as a specific phobia questionable. [4] In one study, most of the participants with trypophobia met the DSM-5 criteria for a specific phobia, even though they experienced disgust instead of fear when shown imagery of clusters of holes; however, they did not meet the distress or impairment criterion. [4]

Signs and symptoms

Trypophobia often presents with an autonomic nervous system response. [4] Shapes that elicit a trypophobic reaction include clustered holes in innocuous contexts, such as fruit and bubbles, and in contexts associated with danger, such as holes made by insects and holes in wounds and diseased tissue such as those caused by mango flies in animals, especially dogs. Upon seeing these shapes, some people said they shuddered, felt their skin crawl, experienced panic attacks, sweated, palpitated, or felt nauseated or itchy. [1] [8] Other reported symptoms include goose bumps, body shakes, nosebleeds, feeling uncomfortable, and visual discomfort such as eyestrain, distortions, or illusions. [4] Trypophobia may manifest as a reaction of fear, disgust, or both. [4] Disgust is usually the stronger emotion in those with trypophobia. [4]

Causes

The understanding of trypophobia is limited. [4] Several possible causes have been proposed. [4] Geoff Cole and Arnold Wilkins believe the reaction is an "unconscious reflex reaction" based on a biological revulsion, rather than a learned cultural fear. [8] Various venomous animals (for example, certain types of snakes, insects, and spiders) have visual characteristics similar to trypophobic imagery. Furthermore, other animals such as the frog Pipa pipa have been known to be a trypophobia trigger. Because of this, it is hypothesized that trypophobia has an evolutionary basis meant to alert humans of dangerous organisms. [1] [9] [10] Can et al., however, believe the connection between trypophobia and evolution as a result of a threat from deadly creatures to be weak and that, if a connection does exist, it manifests later in life rather than in childhood. [4] [11]

Martínez-Aguayo et al. described trypophobia as usually involving "an intense and disproportionate fear towards holes, repetitive patterns, protrusions, etc., and, in general, images that present high-contrast energy at low and midrange spatial frequencies." [4] Cole and Wilkins also stated the imagery has high spatial frequency with greater energy at midrange. [1] [4] Whether together or separate, it appears that low and midrange spatial frequencies are necessary for inducing trypophobic reactions. Based on the imagery's visual cues, An Trong Dinh Le, Cole, and Wilkins developed a symptom questionnaire that they believe can be used to identify trypophobia. [4]

Researchers have also speculated that trypophobic reactions could be perceived as cues to infectious disease, which could be alerts that give one a survival advantage. In a study by Kupfer and Le, trypophobic and non-trypophobic participants showed significant aversion to disease-relevant cluster images, but only trypophobic participants displayed a significant aversion to disease-irrelevant cluster images. Martínez-Aguayo et al. stated that, because the reactions could not be attributed to different sensitivity levels or neuroticism differences, Kupfer and Le believe it supports their hypothesis that trypophobia is "an overgeneralized aversion towards cluster stimuli that indicates a parasitic and infectious disease threat". [4] Yamada and Sasaki also propose that trypophobic reactions are due to the imagery's visual similarities to skin diseases. [4]

Whether trypophobia is associated with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) has also been studied. A significant minority of those with trypophobia meet the DSM-5 criteria for an obsessive-compulsive disorder. [4] Martínez-Aguayo et al. stated that other findings refer to trypophobia having common comorbid psychiatric diagnosis, such as major depressive disorder or generalized anxiety disorder, although Le et al. felt that general anxiety does not cause trypophobia. [4]

Treatment

There are no known treatments for trypophobia, but exposure therapy, which has been used to treat phobias, is likely to be an effective treatment. [1]

Epidemiology

The extent to which trypophobia exists is unknown, [1] but the available data suggests that having an aversion to trypophobic imagery is relatively common. [1] [2] [4] 16% of a sample of 286 participants in a 2013 study reported discomfort or repulsion when presented with an image of a lotus seed pod and its authors found that non-trypophobic individuals also experienced more discomfort when viewing trypophobic imagery than when viewing neutral images. [1] Trypophobia appears to be more prevalent in women. [4]

Etymology

The term trypophobia is believed to have been coined by a participant in an online forum in 2005 [7] from the Greek : τρῦπα, trŷpa, meaning "hole" and φόβος, phóbos, meaning "fear". [7]

Society and culture

Groups on social media sites such as Facebook and Instagram exist for self-identified trypophobics to share and discuss images that they say induce the reaction. [7] [12]

Because trypophobia is not well known to the general public, many people with the condition do not know the name for it and believe that they are alone in their trypophobic reactions and thoughts until they find an online community to share them with. [13] This has led to an increase in trypophobic images on social media; in some cases, people seek to intentionally induce trypophobia in those who have it by showing them trypophobic images, with the most trypophobic-inducing images being holes and clusters (especially the lotus seedhead) photoshopped onto human skin. [13] Cole and Wilkins also stated that the level of disgust with trypophobia increases if the holes are on human skin. [13] Writing in Popular Science , Jennifer Abbasi argues that emotional contagion within such social media groups may be responsible for some of the aversive reactions to such images. [7]

In 2017, trypophobia received media attention when American Horror Story featured a trypophobic character [14] and trypophobia-inducing advertisements promoting the storyline; some people were disturbed by the imagery, [13] [15] and criticized the show for "insensitivity towards sufferers of trypophobia". [15] Although there was sentiment that the increased media attention could lead to people trying to induce trypophobia, there were also opinions that it might help people understand trypophobia and encourage more research on the matter. [13] Some users responded to the September 2019 release of Apple's iPhone 11 Pro, which features three closely spaced camera lenses, with comments that it triggered their trypophobia. [16]

Writer and editor Kathleen McAuliffe suggested that trypophobia is yet to be extensively studied because researchers have not given as much attention to topics of disgust as they have to other areas of research, and because of the revulsion viewing the images could incite in researchers. [17]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fear</span> Basic emotion induced by a perceived threat

Fear is an intensely unpleasant primal emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a danger or threat. Fear causes psychological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. Fear in human beings may occur in response to a certain stimulus occurring in the present, or in anticipation or expectation of a future threat perceived as a risk to oneself. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat, which in extreme cases of fear can be a freeze response. The fear response is also implicated in a number of mental disorders, particularly anxiety disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phobia</span> Anxiety disorder classified by a persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation

A phobia is an anxiety disorder, defined by an irrational, unrealistic, persistent and excessive fear of an object or situation. Phobias typically result in a rapid onset of fear and are usually present for more than six months. Those affected go to great lengths to avoid the situation or object, to a degree greater than the actual danger posed. If the object or situation cannot be avoided, they experience significant distress. Other symptoms can include fainting, which may occur in blood or injury phobia, and panic attacks, often found in agoraphobia and emetophobia. Around 75% of those with phobias have multiple phobias.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anxiety disorder</span> Cognitive disorder with an excessive, irrational dread of everyday situations

Anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by significant and uncontrollable feelings of anxiety and fear such that a person's social, occupational, and personal functions are significantly impaired. Anxiety may cause physical and cognitive symptoms, such as restlessness, irritability, easy fatigue, difficulty concentrating, increased heart rate, chest pain, abdominal pain, and a variety of other symptoms that may vary based on the individual.

Specific phobia is an anxiety disorder, characterized by an extreme, unreasonable, and irrational fear associated with a specific object, situation, or concept which poses little or no actual danger. Specific phobia can lead to avoidance of the object or situation, persistence of the fear, and significant distress or problems functioning associated with the fear. A phobia can be the fear of anything.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Claustrophobia</span> Fear of small spaces

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fear of bees</span> Specific phobia towards bees

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In psychology, desensitization is a treatment or process that diminishes emotional responsiveness to a negative, aversive, or positive stimulus after repeated exposure. Desensitization can also occur when an emotional response is repeatedly evoked when the action tendency associated with the emotion proves irrelevant or unnecessary. The process of desensitization was developed by psychologist Mary Cover Jones and is primarily used to assist individuals in unlearning phobias and anxieties. Desensitization is a psychological process where a response is repeatedly elicited in circumstances where the emotion's propensity for action is irrelevant. Joseph Wolpe (1958) developed a hierarchal list of anxiety-evoking stimuli in order of intensity, which allows individuals to undergo adaptation. Although medication is available for individuals with anxiety, fear, or phobias, empirical evidence supports desensitization with high rates of cure, particularly in clients with depression or schizophrenia. Wolpe's "reciprocal inhibition" desensitization process is based on well-known psychology theories such as Hull's "drive-reduction" theory and Sherrington's concept of "reciprocal inhibition." Individuals are gradually exposed to anxiety triggers while using relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety. It is an effective treatment for anxiety disorders.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thalassophobia</span> Fear of the sea or large open water

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According to the DSM-IV classification of mental disorders, the injury phobia is a specific phobia of blood/injection/injury type. It is an abnormal, pathological fear of having an injury.

Blood-injection-injury (BII) type phobia is a type of specific phobia characterized by the display of excessive, irrational fear in response to the sight of blood, injury, or injection, or in anticipation of an injection, injury, or exposure to blood. Blood-like stimuli may also cause a reaction. This is a common phobia with an estimated 3-4% prevalence in the general population, though it has been found to occur more often in younger and less educated groups. Prevalence of fear of needles which does not meet the BII phobia criteria is higher. A proper name for BII has yet to be created.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disgust</span> Basic emotion

Disgust is an emotional response of rejection or revulsion to something potentially contagious or something considered offensive, distasteful or unpleasant. In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin wrote that disgust is a sensation that refers to something revolting. Disgust is experienced primarily in relation to the sense of taste, and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling by sense of smell, touch, or vision. Musically sensitive people may even be disgusted by the cacophony of inharmonious sounds. Research has continually proven a relationship between disgust and anxiety disorders such as arachnophobia, blood-injection-injury type phobias, and contamination fear related obsessive–compulsive disorder.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hole</span> Opening in the surface of an object

A hole is an opening in or through a particular medium, usually a solid body. Holes occur through natural and artificial processes, and may be useful for various purposes, or may represent a problem needing to be addressed in many fields of engineering. Depending on the material and the placement, a hole may be an indentation in a surface, or may pass completely through that surface.

Ommetaphobia, ommatophobia is an irrational fear of eyes.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Milosevic, Irena; McCabe, Randi E. (2015). Phobias: The Psychology of Irrational Fear. ABC-CLIO. pp. 401–402. ISBN   978-1610695763 . Retrieved October 25, 2017.
  2. 1 2 Schacter, Daniel; Gilbert, Daniel; Wegner, Daniel; Hood, Bruce (2015). Psychology: Second European Edition. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1391. ISBN   978-1137406750 . Retrieved October 25, 2017.
  3. ↑ Trypophobia: What Is It, Triggers, Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment, Cleveland Clinic
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Martínez-Aguayo, Juan Carlos; Lanfranco, Renzo C.; Arancibia, Marcelo; Sepúlveda, Elisa; Madrid, Eva (2018). "Trypophobia: What Do We Know So Far? A Case Report and Comprehensive Review of the Literature". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 9: 15. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00015 . ISSN   1664-0640. PMC   5811467 . PMID   29479321.
  5. ↑ Le, An T. D.; Cole, Geoff G.; Wilkins, Arnold J. (January 30, 2015). "Assessment of trypophobia and an analysis of its visual precipitation". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology . 68 (11): 2304–22. doi:10.1080/17470218.2015.1013970. PMID   25635930. S2CID   42086559.
  6. ↑ Skaggs, William (March 1, 2014). "Are You Afraid of Holes?". Scientific American . Retrieved August 18, 2022.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 Abbasi, Jennifer (July 25, 2011). "Is Trypophobia a Real Phobia?". Popular Science . Retrieved October 2, 2012.
  8. 1 2 Cole, Geoff G.; Wilkins, Arnold J. (October 2013). "Fear of Holes" (PDF). Psychological Science . 24 (10): 1980–1985. doi:10.1177/0956797613484937. PMID   23982244. S2CID   206586831. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 26, 2019.
  9. ↑ Hockenbury, Don; Hockenbury, Sandra E. (2016). Discovering Psychology. Macmillan Higher Education. p. xxxii (sidebar). ISBN   978-1464176968.
  10. ↑ Kupfer, T. R.; Fessler, D. M. T. (July 19, 2018). "Ectoparasite defence in humans: relationships to pathogen avoidance and clinical implications". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 373 (1751): 20170207. doi:10.1098/rstb.2017.0207. PMC   6000138 . PMID   29866920.
  11. ↑ Can, W.; Zhuoran, Z.; Zheng, J. (2017). "Is Trypophobia a Phobia?". Psychological Reports. 120 (2): 206–218. doi:10.1177/0033294116687298. PMID   28558623. S2CID   206427223.
  12. ↑ Doucleff, Michaeleen. "Fear Of Cantaloupes And Crumpets? A 'Phobia' Rises From The Web". NPR . Retrieved April 10, 2016.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 LaMottef, Sandee (September 14, 2017). "TV show triggers little-known phobia". CNN . Retrieved October 26, 2017.
  14. ↑ King, Eric (September 6, 2017). "American Horror Story: Cult: Why is Ally afraid of small holes?". Entertainment Weekly . Retrieved October 26, 2017.
  15. 1 2 Pavey, Harriet (September 5, 2017). "What is trypophobia? Bizarre fear of small holes featured in new American Horror Story series". London Evening Standard . Retrieved October 26, 2017.
  16. ↑ "Apple's iPhone 11 Pro 'triggering' fear of holes". BBC News. September 11, 2019. Retrieved September 11, 2019.
  17. ↑ McAuliffe, Kathleen (2016). This Is Your Brain on Parasites: How Tiny Creatures Manipulate Our Behavior. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 154. ISBN   978-0544193222 . Retrieved October 25, 2017.
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