United States color-coded war plans

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During the 1920s and 1930s, the United States Armed Forces developed a number of color-coded war plans that outlined potential U.S. strategies for a variety of hypothetical war scenarios. The plans, developed by the Joint Planning Committee (which later became the Joint Chiefs of Staff), were officially withdrawn in 1939 at the outbreak of World War II in favor of five "Rainbow" plans developed to meet the threat of a two-ocean war against multiple enemies.

Contents

Colors

The desire for the Army and Navy to utilize the same symbols for their plans gave rise to the use of colors in U.S. war planning. By the end of 1904, the Joint Board had adopted a system of hues, symbols, and shorthand names to represent nations. [1] Many war plans became known by the color of the country to which they were related, a convention that lasted through World War II. As the convention of using colors took root, some were eventually reused, such as Grey, which originally referred to Italy but eventually became a plan for the capture and occupation of Portugal’s Azores. [2] In all the plans the U.S. referred to itself as "Blue". [3] [4]

The plan that received the most consideration was War Plan Orange, a series of contingency plans for fighting a war with Japan alone, [3] outlined unofficially in 1919 and officially in 1924. [5] Orange formed some of the basis for the actual campaign against Japan in World War II and included the huge economic blockade from mainland China and the plans for interning the Japanese-American population.

War Plan Red was a plan for war against the British Empire. [6] British dominions and colonies had war plans of different shades of red: the United Kingdom was "Red", Canada "Crimson", India "Ruby", Australia "Scarlet" and New Zealand "Garnet". Ireland, at the time a free state within the British Empire, was named "Emerald". [7]

War Plan Black was a plan for war with Germany. [3] The best-known version of Black was conceived as a contingency plan during World War I in case France fell and the Germans attempted to seize French possessions in the Caribbean or launch an attack on the eastern seaboard.

Considerations

Many of the war plans were extremely unlikely given the state of international relations in the 1920s and were entirely in keeping with the military planning of other nation-states. Often, junior military officers were given the task of updating each plan to keep them trained and busy (especially in the case of War Plan Crimson, the invasion of Canada). Some of the war plan colors were revised over time, possibly resulting in confusion. [ citation needed ]

Although the U.S. had fought its most recent war against Germany and would fight another within twenty years, intense domestic pressure emerged for the Army to halt when it became known that the Army was constructing a plan for a war with Germany; isolationists opposed any consideration of involvement in a future European conflict. This may have encouraged the Army to focus on more speculative scenarios for planning exercises.[ citation needed ]

The Americas

War Plan Green

During the 1910s, relations between Mexico and the United States were often volatile. In 1912, U.S. President William Howard Taft considered sending an expeditionary force to protect foreign-owned property from damage during the Mexican Revolution. Thus War Plan Green was developed. In 1916, U.S. troops under General John Pershing invaded Mexico in search of Pancho Villa, whose army had attacked Columbus, New Mexico; earlier, American naval forces had bombarded and seized the Mexican port of Veracruz and forced Victoriano Huerta to resign the presidency. In 1917, British intelligence intercepted a telegram from the German foreign ministry to its embassy in Mexico City offering an alliance against the United States and assistance in the Mexican reconquest of the Southwest. Released to American newspapers, the Zimmermann Telegram helped turn American opinion against Germany and further poisoned the atmosphere between the U.S. and Mexico. Relations with Mexico remained tense into the 1920s and 1930s.

Beyond Mexico

Between the American Civil War and World War I, the American military intervened in the affairs of Latin American countries, including Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Cuba and Nicaragua. In doing so, parts of "Gray" and "Purple", plans were considered although never officially activated.

Multilateral war plans

Some plans were expanded to include war against a coalition of hostile powers. The most detailed was War Plan Red-Orange, which detailed a two-front war against Britain and Japan. This was the contingency which most worried U.S. war planners, since it entailed a two-ocean war against major naval powers. Although the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance was terminated by the 1921 Four-Power Treaty, American generals did not rule out the possibility of Britain wanting to seek an alliance with Japan again if war ever broke out. Theories developed in War Plan Red-Orange were useful during World War II, when the United States engaged the Axis powers in both the Atlantic and Pacific simultaneously.

Rainbow plans

Japan took the opportunity afforded by World War I to establish itself as a major strategic power in the Pacific Ocean. Most American officials and planners then considered a war with Japan to be highly likely. The fear lessened when the civilian government of Japan temporarily halted its program of military expansion, but it was resumed in 1931. War Plan Orange was the longest and most detailed of the color-designated plans.

However, following the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and events in Europe in 1938—1940 (the Anschluss, the Munich Agreement, the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the German invasion of Poland and western Europe), American war planners realized that the United States faced war on multiple fronts against a coalition of enemies. Therefore, the Joint Planning Board developed a new series of "Rainbow" plans [8] [9] —the term being a logical extension of the previous "color" plans.

The assumptions and plans for Rainbow 5 were discussed extensively in the Plan Dog memo, which concluded ultimately that the United States would adhere to a Europe first strategy in World War II. [9]

Leak of the Rainbow 5 plan

On December 4, 1941, three days before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Chicago Tribune , with the headline "F.D.R.’s War Plans!", along with The Times Herald of Washington, D.C., published the Rainbow Five plan. The articles, both by the Tribune's Washington correspondent, Chesly Manly, revealed plans to build a 10-million-man Army with a five-million-man expeditionary force to be sent to Europe in 1943 in order to defeat Nazi Germany. [11]

The publication ignited a storm of controversy in the U.S., with isolationist politicians claiming Roosevelt was violating his pledge to keep the country out of the European war, while Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson accused the newspapers of unpatriotic behavior and suggested it would be a dereliction of duty for the War Department not to plan for every contingency. Germany publicly ridiculed the plan the next day, doubting "whether the entire world shipping would be sufficient to transport 5,000,000 troops to Europe, much less supply them there." [12]

Privately, the German general staff saw the publication of the plans as extremely valuable intelligence and used its threat of a five-million-man U.S. force in 1943 to argue for temporarily stalling the faltering invasion of the Soviet Union, and concentrating German forces in the west. Hitler vehemently rejected that idea. Historian Thomas Fleming suggests that Germany might have prevailed against the UK and the U.S. if he had not. The source of the leak has never been determined, with speculation listing several possibilities, including disgruntled or isolationist military officers and even President Roosevelt himself. [11] [13]

List of color plans

According to the public intelligence site, Global Security, [14] the following plans are known to have existed:

War Plan Black [15]
A plan for war with Germany. The best-known version of Black was conceived as a contingency plan during World War I in case France fell, and the Germans attempted to seize the French West Indies in the Caribbean Sea, or launch an attack on the eastern seaboard.
War Plan Gray [16]
There were two war plans named Gray. The first dealt with Central America [16] and the Caribbean, and the second dealt with invading the Portuguese Azores. [17]
War Plan Brown [18]
Dealt with an uprising in the Philippines. [19]
War Plan Tan [20]
Intervention in Cuba.
War Plan Red [21]
Plan for the British Empire, with subvariants for British dominions:
War Plan Orange [22]
Plan for the Empire of Japan.
War Plan Red-Orange [23]
Considered a two-front war with the United States (Blue) opposing the Empire of Japan (Orange) and the British Empire (Red) simultaneously (the Anglo-Japanese Alliance). This analysis led to the understanding that the United States did not have the resources to fight a two-front war. As a result, it was decided that one front should be prioritized for offense while the other was to be defensive, for war against British territories in North America and the Atlantic and against Britain and Japan in the Pacific respectively. This decision resulted in the Plan Dog memo during World War II, replacing Britain with Germany and Italy instead.
War Plan Yellow [24]
Dealt with war in China—specifically, anticipating a repeat of the Boxer Uprising (1899–1901). [25] War Plan Yellow would deploy the U.S. Army in coalition with other imperial forces to suppress indigenous discontent in the Shanghai International Settlement and Beijing Legation Quarter, [26] with chemical weapons if necessary. [27]
War Plan Gold [28]
Involved war with France, and/or France's Caribbean colonies.
War Plan Green [29]
Involved war with Mexico or what was known as "Mexican Domestic Intervention" in order to defeat rebel forces and establish a pro-American government. War Plan Green was officially canceled in 1946.
War Plan Indigo [30]
Involved an occupation of Iceland. In 1941, while Denmark was under German occupation, the U.S. actually did occupy Iceland, relieving British units during the Battle of the Atlantic.
War Plan Purple [31]
Dealt with invading a South American republic.
War Plan Violet [32]
Covered Latin America.
War Plan White [33]
Dealt with a domestic uprising in the U.S. and later evolved to Operation Garden Plot, the general U.S. military plan for civil disturbances and peaceful protests. Parts of War Plan White were used to deal with the Bonus Expeditionary Force in 1932. Communist insurgents were considered the most likely threat by the authors of War Plan White.
War Plan Blue [34]
Covered defensive plans and preparations that the United States should take in times of peace.

No war plan has been constructed towards the Soviet Union. [35]

Related Research Articles

The military history of the United States spans over two centuries, the entire history of the United States. During those centuries, the United States evolved from a newly formed nation which fought for its independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain (1775–1783) to world superpower status in the aftermath of World War II to the present. As of 2024, the United States Armed Forces consists of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force and Space Force, all under the command of the Department of Defense, and the Coast Guard, which is controlled by the Department of Homeland Security.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">War Plan Red</span> US war plan against the British Empire

War Plan Red, also known as the Atlantic Strategic War Plan, was one of the color-coded war plans created by the United States Department of War during the interwar period of 1919–1939, covering scenarios related to a hypothetical war with the British Empire. Many different war plans were prepared by mid-level officers primarily as training exercises in how to calculate the logistical and manpower requirements of fighting a war, and War Plan Red outlined those steps necessary to defend against any attempted invasion of the United States by British forces. It further discussed fighting a two-front war with both Japan and Great Britain simultaneously.

War Plan Orange is a series of United States Joint Army and Navy Board war plans for dealing with a possible war with Japan during the years between the First and Second World Wars. It failed to foresee the significance of the technological changes to naval warfare, including the submarine, air support and aircraft carriers, and although the Battle of Midway was important, and the US Navy did "island-hop" to regain lost territory, there was no culminating "showdown" battle as anticipated by Plan Orange.

Europe first, also known as Germany first, was the key element of the grand strategy agreed upon by the United States and the United Kingdom during World War II after the United States joined the war in December 1941. According to this policy, the United States and the United Kingdom would use the preponderance of their resources to subdue Nazi Germany in Europe first. Simultaneously, they would fight a holding action against Japan in the Pacific, using fewer resources. After the defeat of Germany—considered the greatest threat to the UK and the Soviet Union—all Allied forces could be concentrated against Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mobilization</span> Assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war

Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word mobilization was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories and tactics have continuously changed since then. The opposite of mobilization is demobilization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Casablanca Conference</span> January 1943 conference between Allied leaders for WWII military planning

The Casablanca Conference or Anfa Conference was held in Casablanca, French Morocco, from January 14 to 24, 1943, to plan the Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War II. The main discussions were between US President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Stalin could not attend. Key decisions included a commitment to demand Axis powers' unconditional surrender; plans for an invasion of Sicily and Italy before the main invasion of France; an intensified strategic bombing campaign against Germany; and approval of a US Navy plan to advance on Japan through the central Pacific and the Philippines. The last item authorized the island-hopping campaign in the Pacific, which shortened the war. Of all the decisions made, the most important was the invasion of Sicily, which Churchill pushed for in part to divert American attention from opening a second front in France in 1943, a move that he feared would result in very high Allied casualties and not be possible until 1944.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">World War II by country</span> List of participating countries and their involvement

Almost every country in the world participated in World War II. Most were neutral at the beginning, but only a relative few nations remained neutral to the end. The Second World War pitted two alliances against each other, the Axis powers and the Allied powers. It is estimated that 74 million people died, with estimates ranging from 40 million to 90 million dead. The leading Axis powers were Nazi Germany, the Empire of Japan and the Kingdom of Italy; while the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union and China were the "Big Four" Allied powers.

The First Washington Conference, also known as the Arcadia Conference, was held in Washington, D.C., from December 22, 1941, to January 14, 1942. President Roosevelt of the United States and Prime Minister Churchill of the United Kingdom attended the conference, where they discussed a future United Nations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Operation Unthinkable</span> 1945 plan for war between Western Allies and Soviet Union

Operation Unthinkable was the name given to two related possible future war plans developed by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee against the USSR during 1945. The plans were never implemented. The creation of the plans was ordered by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in May 1945 and developed by the British Armed Forces' Joint Planning Staff in May 1945 at the end of World War II in Europe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Allies of World War II</span> Grouping of the victorious countries of the war

The Allies, formally referred to as the United Nations from 1942, were an international military coalition formed during World War II (1939–1945) to oppose the Axis powers. Its principal members by the end of 1941 were the "Big Four" – the United Kingdom, United States, Soviet Union, and China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Consequences of the attack on Pearl Harbor</span>

Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor took place on December 7, 1941. The United States military suffered 19 ships damaged or sunk, and 2,403 people were killed. Its most significant consequence was the entrance of the United States into World War II. The US had previously been officially neutral but subsequently entered the Pacific War, and after Italy's declaration of war and Germany's declaration of war shortly after the attack, the Battle of the Atlantic and the European theatre of war. Following the attack, the US interned 120,000 Japanese Americans, 11,000 German Americans, and 3,000 Italian Americans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plan Dog memo</span> 1940 American government document

The Plan Dog memorandum was a 1940 American government document written by Chief of Naval Operations Harold Stark. It has been called "one of the best known documents of World War II." Confronting the problem of an expected two-front war against Germany and Italy in Europe and Japan in the Pacific, the memo set out the main options and suggested fighting a defensive war in the Pacific while giving strategic priority to defeating Germany and Italy. The memo laid the basis for the later American policy of Europe first.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States in World War I</span>

The United States declared war on the German Empire on April 6, 1917, nearly three years after World War I started. A ceasefire and armistice were declared on November 11, 1918. Before entering the war, the U.S. had remained neutral, though it had been an important supplier to the United Kingdom, France, and the other powers of the Allies of World War I.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">War Plan Gray</span> U.S. plan to invade the Azores, 1940–41

War Plan Gray was a plan for the United States to invade the Azores Islands in 1940–41 given the possibility of Germany seizing the islands. Gray is one of the many color-coded war plans created in the early 20th century. On 22 May 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt directed the U.S. Army and Navy to draft an official plan to occupy the Portuguese Azores. Approved by the Joint Board on 29 May, War Plan Gray called for a landing force of 28,000 troops, one half Marine and one half Army.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Invasion of the United States</span> Foreign power invading the United States

The United States has been physically invaded on several occasions: once during the War of 1812; once during the Mexican–American War; several times during the Mexican Border War; and three times during World War II, two of which were air attacks on American soil. During the Cold War, most of the US military's strategy was geared towards repelling an attack against NATO allies in Europe by the Warsaw Pact.

The diplomatic history of World War II includes the major foreign policies and interactions inside the opposing coalitions, the Allies of World War II and the Axis powers, between 1939 and 1945.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Air force</span> Military branch that primarily conducts aerial warfare

An air force in the broadest sense is the national military branch that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it is the branch of a nation's armed services that is responsible for aerial warfare as distinct from an army aviation or naval aviation units. Typically, air forces are responsible for gaining control of the air, carrying out strategic and tactical bombing missions, and providing support to land and naval forces often in the form of aerial reconnaissance and close air support.

The presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt began on March 4, 1933.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms</span> U.S. presidential administration from 1941 to 1945

The third presidential term of Franklin D. Roosevelt began on January 20, 1941, when he was once again inaugurated as the 32nd president of the United States, and the fourth term of his presidency ended with his death on April 12, 1945. Roosevelt won a third term by defeating Republican nominee Wendell Willkie in the 1940 United States presidential election. He remains the only president to serve for more than two terms. Unlike his first two terms, Roosevelt's third and fourth terms were dominated by foreign policy concerns, as the United States became involved in World War II in December 1941.

The foreign policy of the United States was controlled personally by Franklin D. Roosevelt during his first and second and third and fourth terms as the president of the United States from 1933 to 1945. He depended heavily on Henry Morgenthau Jr., Sumner Welles, and Harry Hopkins. Meanwhile, Secretary of State Cordell Hull handled routine matters. Roosevelt was an internationalist, while powerful members of Congress favored more isolationist solutions in order to keep the U.S. out of European wars. There was considerable tension before the Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The attack converted the isolationists or made them irrelevant. The US began aid to the Soviet Union after Germany invaded it in June 1941. After the US declared war in December 1941, key decisions were made at the highest level by Roosevelt, Britain's Winston Churchill and the Soviet Union's Joseph Stalin, along with their top aides. After 1938 Washington's policy was to help China in its war against Japan, including cutting off money and oil to Japan. While isolationism was powerful regarding Europe, American public and elite opinion strongly opposed Japan.

References

  1. ↑ "Symbols used to represent foreign countries" (PDF). Records of the Joint Board (1903 - 1947), Joint Board File No. 325 (War Plans), Serial 19. National Archives at College Park, Record Group 225.2. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-19.
  2. ↑ War Plan Gray (WPL-47). National Archives at College Park, Record Group 225.2: Records of the Joint Board (1903 - 1947), Joint Board File No. 325 (War Plans), Serial 694.
  3. 1 2 3 p26 John H. Bradley, Thomas E. Griess, Jack W. Dice, United States Military Academy, Dept. of History: The Second World War: Asia and the Pacific Square One Publishers, Inc., 2002
  4. ↑ "US Color Coded War Plans (1904-1939)". AlternateWars.com. 2017-04-04. Archived from the original on 2017-10-17. Retrieved 2018-08-13.
  5. ↑ Miller, Edward S. (1991). War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897–1945. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute Press. ISBN   0-87021-759-3.
  6. ↑ "Navy Basic Plan Red, Volume I (WPL-22), February 1931" (PDF). Records of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, NND 968133, Box 22 & 23. National Archives at College Park, Record Group 38. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-11-19. Archived 2012-04-25 at the Wayback Machine
  7. ↑ Angela Chen (2015-11-11). "War Plan Red". TheMorningNews.org. Archived from the original on 2017-05-11. Retrieved 2018-08-13.
  8. ↑ Roberts, Ken. Command Decisions. CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
  9. 1 2 "War Plan Rainbow". Globalsecurity.org . Retrieved February 5, 2022.
  10. ↑ Spector, Ronald H. (1985). Eagle Against the Sun. p.  59. ISBN   978-0-394-74101-7.
  11. 1 2 Fleming, Thomas (1987). "The Big Leak". American Heritage. 38 (8). If Hitler had stuck with his original decision and acted to frustrate the objectives of the Victory Program, he could have freed a hundred divisions from the eastern front for a Mediterranean offensive. [This] could have turned the Mediterranean into a German lake and frustrated the Allied plan to seize Africa and attack Europe from the south. The catastrophic German defeat at Stalingrad would never have occurred, and the Allied attempt to invade Europe at any point, particularly across the English Channel, would have been much more costly.
  12. ↑ The New York Times, December 6, 1941, p. 3
  13. ↑ "Historian: FDR probably engineered famous WWII plans leak", UPI Archives, December 2, 1987.
  14. ↑ "War Plan Rainbow". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
  15. ↑ Session: Problems and Exercises, Blue and Orange Series, Blue and Black Series, 1914-1915. Instructional Records, compiled 1921 - 1940, documenting the period 1864 - 1940. War Department. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  16. 1 2 Gray [Central America, Caribbean], 2877. Top Secret Correspondence Relating to Mobilization Plans, compiled 1922 - 1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  17. ↑ 694. Basic Plan for Capture and Occupation of Azores (Gray). Security Classified Correspondence of the Joint Army-Navy Board, compiled 1918 - 03/1942, documenting the period 1910 - 03/1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  18. ↑ Brown [Philippines], 1473-1 to 1473-8. Top Secret Correspondence Relating to Mobilization Plans, compiled 1922 - 1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  19. ↑ Linn, B.M.A. (2000). Guardians of Empire: The U.S. Army and the Pacific, 1902-1940. University of North Carolina Press. p.  285 (Note 49). ISBN   978-0-8078-6301-5.
  20. ↑ 456. Intervention Plan Tan. Security Classified Correspondence of the Joint Army-Navy Board, compiled 1918 - 03/1942, documenting the period 1910 - 03/1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  21. ↑ 274. Tentative Plan Red. Security Classified Correspondence of the Joint Army-Navy Board, compiled 1918 - 03/1942, documenting the period 1910 - 03/1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  22. ↑ 280. War Plan Orange. Security Classified Correspondence of the Joint Army-Navy Board, compiled 1918 - 03/1942, documenting the period 1910 - 03/1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  23. ↑ Red-Orange [British Empire-Japanese Empire], 2963. Top Secret Correspondence Relating to Mobilization Plans, compiled 1922 - 1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
  24. ↑ Yellow [China], 3479-13. Top Secret Correspondence Relating to Mobilization Plans, compiled 1922 - 1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  25. ↑ Millett, Allan Reed (1991). "The Marines in China". Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps. Simon & Schuster. p. 225.
  26. ↑ Ross, Steven (2002). U.S. War Plans: 1938-1945. Lynne Rienner. p. 2.
  27. ↑ Faith, Thomas (2014). "Legacy, 1926-1929". Behind the Gas Mask: The U.S. Chemical Warfare Service in War and Pace. University of Illinois Press. p. 129.
  28. ↑ Game Plan Gold. Avalanche Press. Retrieved 2015-04-16.
  29. ↑ 571. War Plan Green. Security Classified Correspondence of the Joint Army-Navy Board, compiled 1918 - 03/1942, documenting the period 1910 - 03/1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  30. ↑ Roberts, Ken. Command Decisions. CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
  31. ↑ Purple [South America], 3078. Top Secret Correspondence Relating to Mobilization Plans, compiled 1922 - 1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
  32. ↑ 237. Violet Plan. Security Classified Correspondence of the Joint Army-Navy Board, compiled 1918 - 03/1942, documenting the period 1910 - 03/1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  33. ↑ White [Domestic Emergency], 947-3. Top Secret Correspondence Relating to Mobilization Plans, compiled 1922 - 1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  34. ↑ Blue [US Peacetime Preparedness], 616. Top Secret Correspondence Relating to Mobilization Plans, compiled 1922 - 1942. War Department. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
  35. ↑ https://archive.org/details/americanwarplans0000ross_p4d7/page/180/mode/2up?q=%22soviet+union%22

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