Shanghai International Settlement

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Shanghai International Settlement
International Settlement
1863–1941/1943
Flag of the Shanghai International Settlement pre-WWI.svg
Flag of the Shanghai Municipality before World War I
Seal of the Shanghai International Settlement pre-WWI.svg
Seal of the Shanghai Municipality before World War I
Location Map of Shanghai International Settlement.svg
Location of Shanghai International Settlement (in red) relative to the French Concession (faded yellow) and the Chinese zone (gray)
Demonym Shanghailander Shanghainese people
Area 
 1925
22.59 km2 (8.72 sq mi)
Population 
 1910
501,561
 1925
1,137,298
Government
   Motto Omnia Juncta in Uno (Latin)
"All Joined into One"
History 
 Established
1863
 Disestablished
1941/1943
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg British Concession (Shanghai)
Flag of the United States (1863-1865).svg American Concession (Shanghai)
Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China Flag of the Republic of China-Nanjing (Peace, Anti-Communism, National Construction).svg
Today part ofFlag of the People's Republic of China.svg China
Nanking Road, Shanghai, within the International Settlement. Nanking Road (Shanghai) 1.JPG
Nanking Road, Shanghai, within the International Settlement.
1935 map of Shanghai showing the International Settlement with its boundary marked "settlement boundary", as well as the French Concession with an unlabelled boundary also marked. Shanghai 1935 S1 AMS-WO.jpg
1935 map of Shanghai showing the International Settlement with its boundary marked "settlement boundary", as well as the French Concession with an unlabelled boundary also marked.

From the 1860s, the Municipal Council began building roads beyond the concession boundaries, ostensibly to connect the concession with other properties or facilities which required the protection of Britain and other treaty powers during the unrest of the Taiping Rebellion. The Municipal Council obtained limited administrative powers over the areas adjacent to these "extra-settlement roads", making the area a "quasi-concession". The expansion of the International Settlement in 1899 took in most of the extra-settlement roads area, but from 1901 the Municipal Council began building further roads beyond the new boundary with a view to expanding the concession to cover those areas as well. However, a request to further expand the concession (inspired by a similar expansion of the French concession in 1914) was turned down by the Chinese government due to anti-imperialist sentiments. Britain, pre-occupied with World War I, did not press the issue and the extra-settlement roads area retained the "quasi-concession" status until the demise of the concession. Parts of the northern extra-settlement roads area was allocated to Japan for defence purposes in 1927, which the Japanese used as a base for military operations during the 1932 January 28th Incident and the 1937 Battle of Shanghai. After that battle, Japan took full control over the northern extra-settlement roads area and expelled International Settlement police. The neutrality of the western extra-settlement roads area survived in some form until the withdrawal of British troops in 1940.

Article 28 of the International Settlement's Land Regulations stated unequivocally that "the land encompassed in the territory remains Chinese territory, subject to China's sovereign rights." As expressed by legal experts, "the self-governing International Settlement possesses no more power than the mere delegation of purely local and municipal powers and functions. Control of police, sanitation, roads, and other problems of local administration are granted to the Municipal Council simply because that body happens to be the one best equipped to deal with these matters in an area where the large majority of foreigners dwell. But the Municipal Council is in no sense a political body. Its powers, being delegated and hence limited, are subject to strict construction. What foreigners acquire is simply the delegated power of municipal administration, while the reserve powers remain in the sovereign grantor, the Chinese Government. Although under the control of the Consular Council, the area is still Chinese territory, over which China's sovereignty remains unsurrendered". [13] [14]

Hongkew Japantown Hongkou Japantown.JPG
Hongkew Japantown

Rise of Imperial Japan (20th century)

In the 19th century, Europeans possessed treaty ports in Japan in the same way they held those in China. However, Japan rapidly developed into a modern nation, and by the turn of the 20th century the Japanese had successfully negotiated with all powers to abrogate all unequal treaties with it. Japan stood alongside the European powers as part of the Eight-Nation Alliance during the infamous fifty-five-day siege of the foreign embassy compound in Peking. Japan entered the 20th century as a rising world power, and with its unequal treaties with the European powers now abrogated, it actually joined in, obtaining an unequal treaty with China granting extraterritorial rights under the Treaty of Shimonoseki signed in 1895.

In 1915, during the First World War, Japan overtook Britain as the country with the largest number of foreign residents in Shanghai. In 1914, Japan sided with Britain and France in the war and conquered all German possessions in China. By the beginning of the 1930s, Japan was swiftly becoming the most powerful national group in Shanghai and accounted for some 80% of all extraterritorial foreigners in China. Much of Hongkew, which had become an unofficial Japanese settlement, was known as Little Tokyo.

American marines holding up a Japanese patrol trying to enter the International Settlement, Shanghai, 1938 American marines holding up a Japanese patrol in Shanghai, 1930s.png
American marines holding up a Japanese patrol trying to enter the International Settlement, Shanghai, 1938

In 1931, supposed "protection of Japanese colonists from Chinese aggression" in Hongkew was used as a pretext for the Shanghai Incident, when Japanese troops invaded Shanghai. From then until the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) Hongkew was almost entirely outside of the SMC's hands, with law and protection enforced to varying degrees by the Japanese Consular Police and Japanese members of the Shanghai Municipal Police.

Japanese take over rest of Shanghai (1937)

Japanese soldiers in Shanghai, 1937. Japanese marines during the Battle of Shanghai, 1937.jpg
Japanese soldiers in Shanghai, 1937.

In 1932 there were 1,040,780 Chinese living within the International Settlement, with another 400,000 fleeing into the area after the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937. For the next five years, the International Settlement and the French Concession were surrounded by Japanese occupiers and Chinese revolutionaries, with conflict often spilling into the Settlement's borders. In 1941, the Japanese launched an abortive political bid to take over the SMC: during a mass meeting of ratepayers at the Settlement Race Grounds, a Japanese official leaped up and shot William Keswick, then chairman of the council. While Keswick was only wounded, a near riot broke out. [15]

Evacuation of British garrison

Britain evacuated its garrisons from mainland Chinese cities, particularly Shanghai, in August 1940. [16] :299

Currency issued inside the settlement for use by the British Armed Forces inside the city (c. 1940) Currency issued inside the settlement for use by the British Armed Forces inside the city - circa 1940.jpg
Currency issued inside the settlement for use by the British Armed Forces inside the city (c.1940)

Japanese occupy the International Settlement (1941)

Anglo-American influence effectively ended after 8 December 1941, when the Imperial Japanese Army entered and occupied the British and American controlled parts of the city in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor. The British and American troops, taken by surprise, surrendered without a shot, with the exception of the only British riverboat in Shanghai, HMS Peterel, which refused to surrender; six of the 18 British crew on board at the time were killed when the ship was sunk after the Japanese opened fire at almost point-blank range. [17] The French troops did not move from the preserved French Concession, as the French Vichy government considered itself neutral.

European residents of the International Settlement were forced to wear armbands to differentiate them, were evicted from their homes, and—just like Chinese citizens—were liable to maltreatment. All were liable for punitive punishments, torture and even death during the period of Japanese occupation. The Japanese sent European and American citizens to be interned at the Lunghua Civilian Assembly Center, a work camp on what was then the outskirts of Shanghai. Survivors of Lunghua were released in August 1945. [18]

Shanghai was notable for a long period as the only place in the world that unconditionally offered refuge for Jews escaping from the Nazis. [19] These refugees often lived in squalid conditions in an area known as the Shanghai Ghetto in Hongkew. On 21 August 1941 the Japanese government closed Hongkew to Jewish immigration. [20]

Return to Chinese rule

In February 1943, the International Settlement was de jure returned to the Chinese as part of the British–Chinese Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China and American–Chinese Treaty for Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China with the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek. However, because Shanghai was under Japanese control, this was unenforceable. In reply, in July 1943, the Japanese retroceded the SMC to the City Government of Shanghai, which was then in the hands of the pro-Japanese Wang Jingwei Government.

After the war and the liberation of the city from the Japanese, a Liquidation Commission fitfully met to discuss the remaining details of the handover. By the end of 1945, most Westerners not actively involved in the Chinese Civil War (such as intelligence agents, soldiers, journalists, etc.) or in Shanghai's remaining foreign businesses, had left the city. With the defeat of the Kuomintang in 1949, the city was occupied by the Communist People's Liberation Army and came under the control of the mayor of Shanghai.

The foreign architecture of the International Settlement era can still be seen today along the Bund and in many locations around the city.

The building of the British Supreme Court for China in Shanghai Restored British Supreme Court for China Building in Shanghai.jpg
The building of the British Supreme Court for China in Shanghai

The International Settlement did not have a unified legal system. The Municipal Council issued Land Regulations and regulations under this, that were binding on all people in the settlement. Other than this, citizens and subjects of powers that had treaties with China that provided for extraterritorial rights were subject to the laws of their own countries and civil and criminal complaints against them were required to be brought against them to their consular courts (courts overseen by consular officials) under the laws of their own countries. [21]

The number of treaty powers had climbed to a high of 19 by 1918 but was down to 14 by the 1930s: the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, France, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Peru, Mexico, and Switzerland. Germany and Austria-Hungary lost their treaty rights after WWI, and Russia gave up her rights as a matter of political expediency. Belgium was declared by China to have lost her rights in 1927. [22] Furthermore, the Chinese government adamantly refused to grant treaty power status to any of the new nations born in the wake of WWI, such as Austria and Hungary (formerly Austria-Hungary), Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, the Baltic states, or Finland.

Chinese citizens and citizens of non-treaty powers were subject to Chinese law. Inside the Settlement, cases against them would be brought to the Mixed Court, a court established in the Settlement in the 1864 which existed until 1926. In cases involving foreigners, a foreign assessor, usually a consular officer, would sit with the Chinese magistrate and in many cases acted like a judge. In 1927, a Provisional Court was established with a sole Chinese judge presiding. In 1930, Chinese Special Courts were established which had jurisdiction over all non-treaty power individuals and companies in the Settlement.

Two countries, Britain and the United States, established formal court systems in China to try cases. The British Supreme Court for China and Japan was established in 1865 and located in its own building in the British Consulate compound, and the United States Court for China was established in the US Consulate in 1906. Both courts were occupied by the Japanese on 8 December 1941 and effectively ceased to function from that date.

Currency

Shanghai International Settlement
Chinese 上海公共租界
Literal meaning Shanghai communal concession territories
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Shànghǎi Gōnggòng Zūjiè
Wade–Giles Shang-hai Kung-kung Tsu-chieh
"The Gardens (Huangpu Park) are reserved for the Foreign Community". HuangpuparkOld2.jpg
"The Gardens (Huangpu Park) are reserved for the Foreign Community".

The currency situation in China was very complicated in the 19th century, as there was no unified monetary system. Different parts of China operated different systems, and the Spanish pieces of eight that had been coming from Mexico for a few hundred years on Manila galleons were current along the China coast. Until the 1840s, these silver dollar coins were Spanish coins minted mainly in Mexico City; but from the 1840s, these gave way to Mexican republican dollars.

In Shanghai, this complexity represented a microcosm of the complicated economy existing elsewhere along the China coast. The Chinese reckoned in weights of silver, which did not necessarily correspond to circulating coins. One important unit was a tael, a measurement of weight with several different definitions. These included customs taels (for foreign trade) and cotton taels (for cotton trade), among others. Shanghai had its own tael, which was very similar in weight to the customs tael and therefore popular for international business. China also had a mixture of coins, including Chinese copper cash coins and Mexican dollars. Paper money was first issued by European and North American colonial banks (one British colonial bank known as the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China at one time issued banknotes in Shanghai that were denominated in Mexican dollars).

Yen was used in the Japanese district of "Little Tokyo". European and North American currencies did not officially circulate in the International Settlement. Until the year 1873, however, US dollar coins would have reasonably corresponded in size, shape and value to Mexican dollars. Between 1873 and 1900, all silver standard dollars had depreciated to about 50% of the value of the gold standard dollars of the United States and Canada, leading to a rising economic depression.

The Chinese themselves officially adopted the dollar unit as their national currency in 1889, and the first Chinese dollar coins, known as yuan, contained an inscription which related their value to an already existing Chinese system of accounts. On the earliest Chinese dollar (yuan) coins it states the words 7 mace and 2 candareens. The mace and candareen were sub-divisions of the tael unit of weight. [23] Banknotes tended to be issued in dollars, either worded as such or as yuan.

Despite the complications arising from a mixture of Chinese and Spanish coinages, there was one overwhelming unifying factor binding all the systems in use: silver. The Chinese reckoned purely in terms of silver, and value was always compared against a weight of silver (hence, the reason large prices were given in tael). It was the strict adherence of the Chinese to silver that caused China and even the British colonies of Hong Kong and Weihaiwei to remain on the silver standard after the rest of the world had changed over to the gold standard. When China began producing official Republican yuan coins in 1934, they were minted in Shanghai and shipped to Nanking for distribution.

Postal services

Shanghai local post stamp showing the seal of the Municipal Council Stamp Shanghai 1893 1c.jpg
Shanghai local post stamp showing the seal of the Municipal Council

Shanghai had developed a postal service as early as the Ming dynasty, but during the treaty port era foreign postal services were organised through their respective consulates. For example, the United States Post Office Department maintained a United States Postal Agency at the Shanghai consulate through which Americans could use the US Post Office to send mail to and from the US mainland and US territories. Starting in 1919 the 16 current regular US stamps were overprinted for use in Shanghai with the city's name, "China", and amounts double their printed face values. [24] In 1922 texts for two of the overprints were changed, thereby completing the Scott catalogue set of K1-18, "Offices in China".

The British originally used British postage stamps overprinted with the local currency amount, but from 1868, the British changed to Hong Kong postage stamps already denominated in dollars. However, in the special case of Shanghai, in the year 1865 the International Settlement began to issue its own postage stamps, denominated in the local Shanghai tael unit.

The Shanghai Post Office controlled all post within the Settlement, but post entering or leaving the treaty port was required to go through the Chinese Imperial Post Office. In 1922 the various foreign postal services, the Shanghai Post Office, and the Chinese Post Office were all brought together into a single Chinese Post Office, thus extending the 1914 membership of the Chinese Post Office to the Universal Postal Union to the Shanghai Post Office. Some other foreign countries refused to fall under this new postal service's remit, however; for many years, Japan notably sent almost all its mail to Shanghai in diplomatic bags, which could not be opened by postal staff.

The General Shanghai Post Office was first located on Beijing Road and moved to the location on Sichuan North Road of the General Post Office Building that is today the Shanghai Post Museum.

Music

International merchants brought with them amateur musical talent that manifested in the creation of the Shanghai Philharmonic Society in 1868. [25] From here, the Shanghai Municipal Orchestra was officially formed in 1879. [26]

In 1938, the Shanghai Municipal Orchestra faced disbandment as the ratepayers in the annual Municipal Council meeting considered reallocating budgets away from the orchestra, since it was "western and unnecessary". However, after much discussion, they decided to keep the orchestra, acknowledging that its educational value was much greater than the cost of keeping it up. [27] The Shanghai Municipal Orchestra had the financial and verbal backing of many other larger countries, including Italy, who donated 50,000 lire to the orchestra, [28] the France Council, who acted as a defending argument for the maintenance of the orchestra, [27] and Japan, whose Viscount Konoye encouraged the Japanese people to support the orchestra and the culture that it brought to the East. [29]

In addition to the string orchestra, opera and choral music were favored forms of entertainment. Often, the orchestra would accompany singers as a part of orchestra concerts, in addition to the symphonies and other pieces that they played, or just in choral or opera concerts. [30]

List of chairmen of the Shanghai Municipal Council

Simplified map of Shanghai Settlement (west on top) The mystic flowery land; a personal narrative (1896) (14591881777).jpg
Simplified map of Shanghai Settlement (west on top)
  1. Flag of the United States.svg Edward Cunningham (25.5.1852 – 21.7.1853, as Chairman of the Committee on Roads and Jetties, the Municipal Council's predecessor)
  2. Flag of the United States.svg William Shepard Wetmore (21.7.1853 – 11.7.1854, as Chairman of the Committee on Roads and Jetties)
  3. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg James Lawrence Man (11.7.1854 – 1855)
  4. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Christopher Augustus Fearon (1855)
  5. Flag of the United States.svg William Shepard Wetmore (3.1855 – 1855)
  6. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg William Thorbun (1855–1856)
  7. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg James Lawrence Man (1.1856 – 31.1.1857)
  8. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg George Watson Coutts (31.1.1857 – 1.1858)
  9. Flag of the United States.svg John Thorne (1.1858 – 1.1859)
  10. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Robert Reid (31.1.1859 – 15.2.1860)
  11. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Rowland Hamilton (15.2.1860 – 2.2.1861)
  12. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg William Howard (2.2.1861 – 31.3.1862)
  13. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Henry Turner (31.3.1862 – 4.4.1863)
  14. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Henry William Dent (4.4.1863 – 25.4.1865)
  15. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg William Keswick (25.4.1865 – 18.4.1866)
  16. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg F.B. Johnson (18.4.1866 – 3.1868)
  17. Flag of the United States.svg Edward Cunningham (3.1868 – 2.4.1870)
  18. Flag of the United States.svg George Basil Dixwell (2.4.1870 – 4.4.1871)
  19. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg John Dent (4.4.1871 – 1.1873)
  20. Flag of the United States.svg Robert Inglis Fearon (1.1873 – 16.4.1874)
  21. Flag of the United States.svg John Graeme Purdon (16.4.1874 – 1876)
  22. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Alfred Adolphus Krauss (1876 – 1.1877)
  23. Flag of the United States.svg J. Hart (1.1877 – 16.1.1879)
  24. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Robert "Bob" W. Little (16.1.1879 – 30.1.1882)
  25. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg H.R. Hearn (30.1.1882 – 1882)
  26. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Walter Cyril Ward (1882–1883)
  27. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Alexander Myburgh (1883 – 22.1.1884)
  28. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg James Johnstone Keswick (22.1.1884 – 22.1.1886)
  29. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg A.G. Wood (22.1.1886 – 1889)
  30. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg John Macgregor (1889 – 5.1891)
  31. Flag of the United States.svg John Graeme Purdon (5.1891 – 1.1893)
  32. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg John Macgregor (1.1893 – 7.11.1893)
  33. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg James Lidderdale Scott (11.1893 – 26.1.1897)
  34. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Edward Albert Probst (26.1.1897 – 21.4.1897)
  35. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Albert Robson Burkill (12.5.1897 – 1.1898)
  36. Flag of the United Kingdom.svgFlag of the United States.svg James S. Fearon (1.1898 – 8.1899)
  37. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Frederick Anderson (8.1899 – 1.1900)
  38. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Edbert Ansgar Hewett (8.1900 – 25.1.1901)
  39. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg John Prentice (26.1.1901 – 25.1.1902)
  40. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg William George Bayne (25.1.1902 – 1904)
  41. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Frederick Anderson (1904 – 25.1.1906)
  42. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Cecil Holliday (25.1.1906 – 24.8.1906)
  43. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Henry Keswick (24.8.1906 – 5.1907)
  44. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg David Landale (5.1907 – 17.1.1911)
  45. Flag of the United States.svg Harry De Gray (17.1.1911 – 24.1.1913)
  46. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Edward Charles Pearce (24.1.1913 – 17.2.1920)
  47. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Alfred Brooke-Smith (17.2.1920 – 17.3.1922)
  48. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg H.G. Simms (17.3.1922 – 12.10.1923)
  49. Flag of the United States.svg Stirling Fessenden (12.10.1923 – 5.3.1929)
  50. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Harry Edward Arnhold (5.3.1929 – 1930)
  51. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Ernest Brander Macnaghten (1930 – 22.3.1932)
  52. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg A.D. Bell (22.3.1932 – 27.3.1934)
  53. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Harry Edward Arnhold (27.3.1934 – 4.1937)
  54. Flag of the United States.svg Cornell Franklin (4.1937 – 4.1940)
  55. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg William Johnstone "Tony" Keswick (4.1940 – 1.5.1941)
  56. Flag of the United Kingdom.svg John Hellyer Liddell (1.5.1941 – 5.1.1942)
  57. Flag of Japan.svg Katsuo Okazaki (5.1.1942 – 1.8.1943)

Notable people

Born in the International Settlement

Residents of the International Settlement

Relation with the French Concession

The French Concession was governed by a separate municipal council, under the direction of the consul general. The French Concession was not part of the International Settlement, but had economic interests in it as evidenced by the presence of the French flag on the seal and the flag of the Municipal Council.

See also

Notes

  1. Austria-Hungary, Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway-Sweden, Portugal, Russia, Spain (represented by its civil ensign), the United Kingdom, and the United States. The flag of Prussia was also included, later to be replaced by whitespace.

References

Citations

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  6. Hanchao Hu (1999), p. 32.
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  23. Bruce, Colin R.; Michael, Thomas (11 June 2007). 2008 Standard Catalog of World Coins 1901–2000. F+W Media, Inc. ISBN   9780896895003 via Google Books.
  24. http://www.stampnotes.com/Notes_from_the_Past/pastnote432.htm Archived 29 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Postal Agency in Shanghai
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  27. 1 2 "S.M.C. Ratepayers' Meeting". The North – China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette. 14 April 1938. ProQuest   1371344324.
  28. "Italy's Gift to Shanghai: Italian Government's Donation of 50,000 Lire to Shanghai Municipal Orchestra". The North – China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette. 5 October 1938. ProQuest   1371435956.
  29. "Viscount Konoye Urges That Japanese Support Orchestra". The China Press. 20 February 1936. ProQuest   1416718873.
  30. "Professor Sternberg's Symphony Concert". The North – China Herald and Supreme Court & Consular Gazette. 23 May 1900. ProQuest   1369467847.
  31. "Mr. J. H. Crocker Tells Of Work at Shanghai". Brantford Expositor . Brantford, Ontario. 15 February 1912. p. 7.
  32. Keyes, Mary Eleanor (October 1964). John Howard Crocker LL. D., 1870–1959 (Thesis). London, Ontario: University of Western Ontario. p. 62. OCLC   61578234.
  33. Foley, Meredith; Radi, Heather (1983). "Eleanor Mary Hinder (1893–1963)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. Vol. 9.
  34. Barker, Heather (2006) [2002]. "Addie Viola Smith (1893–1975)". Australian Dictionary of Biography . Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University. Archived from the original on 22 February 2024. Retrieved 14 April 2024.

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