Addie Viola Smith | |
---|---|
Consul and secretary to the Consulate General of the United States, Shanghai | |
In office 1939 –c. 1942 | |
Trade commissioner in Shanghai,Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,United States Department of Commerce | |
In office January 1,1928 –1939 | |
Assistant trade commissioner in Shanghai | |
In office November 1,1922 –December 31,1927 | |
Personal details | |
Born | Stockton,California,United States | November 14,1893
Died | December 13,1975 82) Mosman,New South Wales,Australia | (aged
Domestic partner | Eleanor Mary Hinder |
Education | Bachelor of laws,Washington College of Law,1920 |
Occupation | Attorney |
Profession | Foreign Service officer |
Known for | First female Foreign Service officer in the United States Foreign Service to work under the United States Department of Commerce,first female assistant trade commissioner,trade commissioner in Shanghai |
Addie Viola Smith (November 14,1893 –December 13,1975),also known as Shi Fanglan (Chinese :施芳蘭), [1] was an American attorney who served as the United States trade commissioner to Shanghai from 1928 to 1949. She was the first female Foreign Service officer in the United States Foreign Service to work under the United States Department of Commerce,the first woman to serve as an assistant trade commissioner,and the first woman to serve as trade commissioner.
Smith was born and raised in Stockton,California. In 1917,she moved to Washington,D.C. While working for the United States Department of Labor,she attended the Washington College of Law part-time,earning her bachelor of laws in 1920. In October that year she joined the Foreign Service and was assigned to Beijing as a clerk in the trade commissioner's office. Smith was promoted to assistant trade commissioner in Shanghai in 1922,and appointed trade commissioner of Shanghai in 1928,a post she held until 1939. For the remainder of her career,she held several roles in the United States government,international organizations,and the United Nations. Throughout her life,Smith was also a member of several feminist organizations;scholars have described her international feminist activism as being rooted in imperialist and colonialist attitudes. Smith met her life partner,Eleanor Mary Hinder,in Shanghai in 1926. They lived together until Hinder's death in 1963. Smith died on December 13,1975,in Mosman,New South Wales,Australia,and was cremated. Both were memorialized by their friends with two stone seats at the E.G. Waterhouse National Camellia Gardens in Caringbah.
Addie Viola Smith was born in Stockton,California,on November 14,1893,to Rufus Roy Smith,a publisher,and Addie Gabriela Smith ( née Brown). From 1910 to 1917,Smith worked for two wholesale companies. She also learned stenography and earned a degree in business administration from Heald's Business College in San Francisco. [2] In 1917,she passed county,state,and federal civil service exams. [3] She moved to Washington,D.C.,in April 1917,after was hired into the United States Department of Labor by Julia Lathrop,the director of the United States Children's Bureau,to work under Grace Abbott in implementing recently passed child labor legislation. [4] Smith also served as a confidential clerk to an assistant secretary of labor,assistant chief of the Women's Division of the United States Employment Service,and chief of the Information Division of the United States Training and Dilution Service. In 1919,she worked on the first National Industrial Conference and edited the proceedings of the first International Labor Office Conference. [5]
During her service with the Labor Department,Smith attended the Washington College of Law as a part-time student and obtained a bachelor of laws degree in 1920. [6] She was also mentored by a network of women in government and politics,whom she drew upon throughout her career. [7]
Smith was appointed to the United States Foreign Service as a Foreign Service officer in October 1920 and assigned to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce under the United States Department of Commerce. She was the first woman to serve as a Foreign Service officer under the Bureau. [8] Smith initially worked as a clerk in the trade commissioner's office in Beijing. [9] As a clerk,Smith was responsible for surveying industry,compiling data,and identifying investment opportunities. [10]
Early in 1922,Smith requested permission to sit for a civil service examination so that she could obtain a promotion to assistant trade commissioner. [11] Despite support from her immediate supervisor and American businesses operating in China,the assistant director of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce,O. P. Hopkins,denied her application. Hopkins wrote to Smith:"The Bureau has not yet made any definite decision as to what its policy will be toward employing women as assistant trade commissioners and trade commissioners." [12] Smith wrote back,stating that "the opening of higher positions to women is not nearly so 'grave and serious' a matter,as is the caliber of the representatives,be they men or women,which the Bureau sends to its foreign posts",and that she had a right to sit for the exam. [11] The former chief of the Woman's Division of the United States Employment Service,Hilda Muhlhauser Richards,also intervened on Smith's behalf—threatening to "take the issue to New York women's organizations"—prompting Hopkins to reverse his decision. [12] Smith became the first woman appointed to the post of assistant trade commissioner on November 1,1922. [13]
While serving as assistant trade commissioner,Smith again sought promotion to full trade commissioner. After an initial rejection,she sought help from Clara Burdette,president of the California Federation of Women's Clubs,who appealed to Herbert Hoover,the then-Secretary of Commerce and a personal friend. As it happened,Smith's appointment had already been confirmed by Julean Arnold,her immediate superior,and she took up the role on January 1,1928. [14] Smith was the first female trade commissioner in the Foreign Service. [15] She also served as the registrar of the Chinese Trade Act of 1922. In that role,Smith was responsible for ensuring corporate compliance with registration requirements,sometimes litigating against firms herself in the United States Court for China—becoming the third woman to be admitted to practice before the court in 1934. [16]
As trade commissioner,Smith was responsible for reporting on Chinese industry,infrastructure,and trade opportunities to the Department of Commerce;advising American business interests;serving as a liaison between American and Chinese businesses;implementing U.S. trade policy;and promoting the expansion of American trade in China. [17] During her tenure,she was respected by her colleagues and by Americans doing business in China. Barbara Miller,in 1936,wrote for the Los Angeles Times Sunday Magazine :"Business men visiting China generally agree,'If you want accurate information on foreign trade—and want it today—go to Viola Smith.'" [18]
Smith was an avid motorist,driving thousands of miles in China throughout her career. [19] She was considered an expert on roads in China,and she was regularly consulted by the Chinese government and American companies on road proposals and related business opportunities. [20] As trade commissioner,she prioritized building roads as a means of increasing the import of American automobiles to China. [17]
In 1935,Smith began lobbying to bring shortwave radio broadcasting to China,believing that there was demand among American expatriates in Asia and estimating the Shanghai market at approximately 12,000 listeners. [21] She believed that this market would purchase American-made receivers;that both American expatriates and Chinese listeners would purchase American goods advertised on radio programs;and that American radio would improve China–United States relations. [22] In 1937,she persuaded General Electric to open W6XBE,which rebroadcast NBC's domestic radio programs to China from the San Francisco Bay Area. [23] The station launched on February 19,1939. [24] Based on feedback from other Americans in China,Smith worked to improve its programming,suggesting that the station "give succinct resumes of important American happenings and events,to be given by prominent persons identified with American governmental,commercial,financial,and cultural life",such as "broadcasts of Carnegie Hall concerts,symphony orchestras,military bands,and similar items". [25]
Smith resigned as trade commissioner in 1939,when she was appointed consul and secretary to the United States Consulate in Shanghai. [26] In that role,she worked to evacuate Americans during the 1941 Japanese invasion of the Shanghai International Settlement. [27] From 1942 to 1946,Smith lived and worked in Washington,D.C. She served as an economic specialist for the United States Department of State from 1942 to 1943,and worked with the China America Council of Commerce and Industry on post-war trade from 1944 to 1946. She returned to China in 1946 to open the Council's Shanghai headquarters [28] —a move that the Associated Press described as "[a]n indication that China is beginning to right itself after eight years' war with Japan" [29] —and then worked for private companies and the United States China Relief Mission. [26]
In 1949,Smith left China and moved to Bangkok,where she worked for the United States Economic Cooperation Administration and the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East. From 1952 to 1964,she was the representative of the International Federation of Women Lawyers to the United Nations in New York;in her later years,she conducted much of her work from Sydney. [30]
During her time in Shanghai,Smith joined and helped to organize international feminist groups. She was a member of several organizations,including the American Women's Club of Shanghai and the Joint Committee of Shanghai Women's Organizations. [31] She was nominated to run for the Shanghai Municipal Council in 1930 by women's groups,but withdrew after receiving a cable from the Department of Commerce that stated it would be "undesirable" for Smith to serve on the council. [32] Smith's activism sometimes caused tension with Chinese women;she and other Western expatriates viewed their role as engaging in dialogue with Chinese women and "sincerely endeavor[ing] to reflect the best of American ideals and traditions". [33] According to the historians Alexandra Epstein and Sarah Paddle,Smith and her contemporaries also adopted colonialist or imperialist mindsets,seeking to instill American values in China through intellectual exchange and philanthropy. [34]
For example,in August 1928,Smith attended the inaugural Pan-Pacific Women's Conference,a meeting of internationalist feminists in Honolulu,Territory of Hawaii,along with two Chinese women,her partner Eleanor Mary Hinder,and another Western expatriate woman in China. [35] At the conference,Smith—without consulting the Chinese members of her delegation—suggested that China host the next conference in 1930, [36] causing what Epstein has called an "international incident". [37] Dr. Mei Iung Ting,a Chinese woman,responded "If the next conference is going to be held in China the invitation should be from the Chinese women". [38]
Smith met her life partner,Eleanor Mary Hinder,in March 1926. Hinder,an Australian woman,was then working on a fellowship grant with the Young Women's Christian Association. [39] Soon thereafter,Hinder and Smith fell in love,and Hinder moved into Smith's apartment. [40] They lived together in Shanghai until 1941—with some periods spent apart as a result of work and war [41] —where they were "devoted to each other,shar[ing] a house[ ] and creat[ing] a garden". During the 1950s,Smith and Hinder spent much of their time living in New York,traveling often for Smith's work with the United Nations. [42] After Hinder was denied United States citizenship,Smith and Hinder established a residence in Sydney,Australia,in 1957. [26] Smith was a member of the Royal Australian Historical Society,the League of Women Voters,Sydney,and the Australian Local Government Women's Association,serving as its vice president from 1968 to 1970. [43] Hinder died in 1963;Smith remained close with her family and chronicled their genealogy. [42] As executrix of Hinder's estate,she compiled and annotated Hinder's papers for contribution to the Mitchell Library. [44] In 1975,she published Women in Australian Parliament and Local Government,which at the time was believed to be the only comprehensive record of women who had served in the Australian government. [45]
Smith died on December 13,1975,in Mosman,New South Wales,Australia,and was cremated. Smith and Hinder were memorialized in 1977 by their friends and women's groups with the placement of two stone seats at the E.G. Waterhouse National Camellia Gardens in Caringbah. One of the seats was put near an entrance to the gardens. The other was placed next to a camellia,planted by Smith,named "China Doll". [46]
A steamship,often referred to as a steamer,is a type of steam-powered vessel,typically ocean-faring and seaworthy,that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically move (turn) propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into practical usage during the early 1800s;however,there were exceptions that came before. Steamships usually use the prefix designations of "PS" for paddle steamer or "SS" for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common,"SS" is incorrectly assumed by many to stand for "steamship". Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as "MV" for motor vessel,so it is not correct to use "SS" for most modern vessels.
USS Mississippi,a paddle frigate,was the first ship of the United States Navy to bear that name. She was named for the Mississippi River. Her sister ship was Missouri. Her keel was laid down by the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1839;built under the personal supervision of Commodore Matthew Perry. She was commissioned on 22 December 1841,with Captain W. D. Salter in command and launched several weeks later.
USS Smith Thompson (DD-212) was a Clemson-class destroyer in service with the United States Navy from 1919 to 1936. She was intentionally sunk following a collision with USS Whipple (DD-217),in July 1936.
USS Stewart (DD-224) was a Clemson-class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War II. She was the second ship named for Rear Admiral Charles Stewart. Scuttled in port at Surabaya,Java,she was later raised by the Japanese and commissioned as Patrol Boat No. 102. She came back under American control in 1945 after the occupation of Japan.
Pan Yuliang,born as Chen Xiuqing,also known as Zhang Yuliang (張玉良),is remembered as the first woman in China to paint in the Western style. She studied in Shanghai and Paris,and taught at the École des Beaux Arts. In 1985,much of her work was transported to China,and collected by the National Art Museum in Beijing and the Anhui Museum in Hefei. Despite being remembered for introducing Western paintings to China,she also provided a new lens to how women were seen through her paintings,not just as objects but as subjects. She won several awards for her work and exhibited internationally in Europe,the United States,and Japan. Significant paintings,sculptures,and prints by her are still conserved in France in the collection of the Cernuschi museum. Her life as an artist has been portrayed in novels,films,and operas in China and the United States. Her art evolved within the flux of conflicting dichotomies of East and West,tradition and modernity,male chauvinism and emerging feminism. Pan is also remembered as an artist who engaged with labels,such as "contemporary/modern," "Chinese," and "woman" artist,while also questioning them.
The East India Squadron,or East Indies Squadron,was a squadron of American ships that existed in the nineteenth century. It focused on protecting American interests in the Far East,while the Pacific Squadron concentrated on the western coasts of the Americas and the South Pacific Ocean. Its duties included the Yangtze River Patrol in China. The East India Squadron was established in 1835 and existed until it became part of the Asiatic Squadron in 1868.
The diplomatic history of Australia encompasses the historical events surrounding Australian foreign relations. Following the global change in the dynamics of international state of affairs in the 20th century,this saw a transition within Australia's diplomatic situation to broaden outside of exclusively commonwealth and western European nations. Its core relationship was with Great Britain until 1941,and with the United States and New Zealand since then as represented by ANZUS. In the 21st century trade has soared with China. However relations have cycled back and forth from friendly to strained. For recent relations see also Foreign relations of Australia.
Clarence Edward Gauss was an American diplomat.
The United States Court for China was a United States district court that had extraterritorial jurisdiction over U.S. citizens in China. It existed from 1906 to 1943 and had jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters,with appeals taken to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in San Francisco.
Shin'yōMaru was a cargo steamship that was built in 1894,had a fifty-year career under successive British,Australian,Chinese and Greek owners,was captured by Japan in the Second World War,and sunk by a United States Navy submarine in 1944.
The Consulate General of the United States in Shanghai is one of the five American diplomatic and consular posts in the People's Republic of China.
Anne Walter Fearn was an American physician who went to Shanghai,China,on a temporary posting in 1893,and remained there for 40 years.
Talitha A. Gerlach was an American YWCA worker who spent most of her life as a social worker in Shanghai,China,where she died. She received various awards from the Shanghai and Chinese governments.
The Australian Consulate-General in Shanghai represents the Commonwealth of Australia in Shanghai,the most populous city and a global financial centre in the People's Republic of China. The Consulate-General,one of many in Shanghai,has its offices in the CITIC Square building,1168 Nanjing Road West.
Vivian Gordon Bowden was an Australian public servant and diplomat.
Jennie V. Hughes was an American Methodist missionary in China. She co-founded the Bethel Mission in Shanghai with Chinese doctor Shi Meiyu.
Gravina was an 818-register ton clipper ship built in Hoboken,New Jersey,in 1853. A rare example of a clipper built in the United States for foreign owners,Gravina was originally homeported in Spain,though commanded by an American.
Eleanor Mary Hinder OBE was an Australian social worker,public servant,and United Nations official. She lived in the Shanghai International Settlement from 1926 to 1942,working for the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) and Shanghai Municipal Council. She later worked as an official with the British Foreign Office and the United Nations.