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Treaty ports were the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade mainly by the unequal treaties forced upon them by Western powers,as well as cities in Korea opened up similarly by the Japanese Empire.
The Second Opium War,also known as the Second Anglo-Chinese War,the Second China War,the Arrow War,or the Anglo-French expedition to China,was a war pitting the British Empire and the French Empire against the Qing dynasty of China that lasted from 1856 to 1860.
The Opium Wars were two wars waged between the Qing dynasty and Western powers in the mid-19th century. The First Opium War,fought in 1839–1842 between Qing China and the United Kingdom,was triggered by the dynasty's campaign against the British merchants who sold opium in China. The Second Opium War was fought between the Qing and the United Kingdom and France,1856–1860. In each war,the European force's modern military technology led to easy victory over the Qing forces,with the consequence that the government was compelled to grant favourable tariffs,trade concessions,reparations and territory to the Europeans.
In international law,extraterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law,usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations.
Sir Harry Smith Parkes was a British diplomat who served as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul General of the United Kingdom to the Empire of Japan from 1865 to 1883 and the Chinese Qing Empire from 1883 to 1885,and Minister to Korea in 1884. Parkes Street in Kowloon,Hong Kong is named after him.
Unequal treaty is the name given by the Chinese to a series of treaties signed between China and various Western powers,the Russian Empire,and the Empire of Japan during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The agreements,often reached after a military defeat,contained one-sided terms requiring China to cede land,pay reparations,open treaty ports,or grant extraterritorial privileges to foreign citizens.
Keying,also known by his Chinese name Qiying and his Manchu name Kiyeng,was a Manchu statesman during the Qing dynasty of China. An imperial clansman of the house of Aisin Gioro,he began his career in the Imperial Clan Court. He conducted several peace treaties with Western powers,beginning with the Treaty of Nanking,which ended the First Opium War with Britain in 1842. Keying was sent to negotiate again in 1858 to settle the Arrow War with Britain and France,but the settlement was repudiated by the Daoguang Emperor and he was forced to commit suicide.
The Shanghai International Settlement originated from the merger in the year 1863 of the British and American enclaves in Shanghai,in which British subjects and American citizens would enjoy extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction under the terms of treaties signed in the nineteenth century with the Qing Dynasty. These treaties were abrogated in 1943 by agreement with the Kuomintang,then based in Chungking.
In international relations,a concession is a "synallagmatic act by which a State transfers the exercise of rights or functions proper to itself to a foreign private person which,in turn,participates in the performance of public functions and thus gains a privileged position vis-a-vis other private law subjects within the jurisdiction of the State concerned." International concessions are not defined in international law and do not generally fall under it. Rather,they are governed by the municipal law of the conceding state. There may,however,be a law of succession for such concessions,whereby the concession is continued even when the conceding state ceases to exist.
The Convention between the United Kingdom and China,Respecting an Extension of Hong Kong Territory,commonly known as the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory or the Second Convention of Peking,was a lease signed between Qing China and the United Kingdom on 9 June 1898. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China now keeps the original copy of the Convention in the National Palace Museum in Taiwan.
The history of Shanghai spans over a thousand years and closely parallels the development of modern China. Originally a small agricultural village,Shanghai developed during the late Qing dynasty (1644–1912) as one of China's principal trading ports. Although nominally part of China,in practice foreign diplomats controlled the city under the policy of extraterritoriality. Since the economic reforms of the early 1990s the city has burgeoned to become one of Asia's major financial centers and the world's busiest container port.
Small Swords Society or Small Knife Society was a political and military organisation active in Shanghai,China,and neighbouring areas amid the Taiping Rebellion,between about 1840 and 1855. Members of the society,rebelling against the Qing dynasty,occupied old Shanghai and many of the surrounding villages. Chinese gentry and merchants took refuge in the British and French concessions,which were regarded as the only safe places. The rebellion was suppressed and the society expelled from Shanghai in February 1855.
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The Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China,or the Sino-British New Equal Treaty,was a bilateral treaty concluded between the British and the Chinese governments in Chungking (Chongqing) on 11 January 1943. The formal name of the treaty was Treaty Between His Majesty in Respect of the United Kingdom and India and His Excellency the President of the National Government of the Republic of China for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China and the Regulation of Related Matters.
The British Concession or Settlement was a foreign enclave in Shanghai within the Qing Empire which existed from around 1845 until its unification with the American area,located directly north of it across the Soochow Creek to form the Shanghai International Settlement in 1863.
Byron Brenan CMG,,was a British diplomat who served in China from 1866. His last position before retirement was as British Consul General in Shanghai from 1899 to 1901.
China participated in World War I from 1917 to 1918 in an alliance with the Entente Powers. China never sent troops overseas,however,140,000 Chinese labourers served for both British and French forces before the end of the war. Although neutral since 1914,Duan Qirui,Premier of the Republic of China,spearheaded Chinese involvement in World War I. Duan wanted to integrate China with Europe and the United States by declaring on the side of the Allies against the Central Powers. On 14 August 1917,China ended its neutrality,declaring war on the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
References
Citations
- ↑ Murakami, Ei (December 2013), "A Comparison of the End of the Canton and Nagasaki Trade Control Systems", Itinerario, 37, Leiden: Leiden University, pp. 39–48.
- ↑ Fox, Josephine (Autumn 2000), "Common Sense in Shanghai: The Shanghai General Chamber of Commerce and Political Legitimacy in Republican China", History Workshop Journal, No. 50, pp. 22–44.
- ↑ Cassel, Pär (2003), "Excavating Extraterritoriality: The "Judicial Sub-Prefect" as a Prototype for the Mixed Court in Shanghai", Late Imperial China, 24, pp. 156–182.
- ↑ French (2010), p. 63.
- ↑ French (2010), p. 165.
- ↑ French (2010), p. 215.
- ↑ French (2010), p. 49.
- ↑ Hamashita, Takeshi (2002), "Tribute and Treaties: East Asian Treaty Ports Networks in the Era of Negotiation, 1834–1894", European Journal of East Asian Studies, 1, pp. 59–87.
- ↑ French (2010), pp. 52–3.
Bibliography
- French, Paul (2010), The Old Shanghai A–Z, Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, ISBN 978-988-8028-89-4 .