Unequal treaties | |||||||||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 不平等條約 | ||||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 不平等条约 | ||||||||||||
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Korean name | |||||||||||||
Hangul | 불평등조약 | ||||||||||||
Hanja | 不平等條約 | ||||||||||||
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Japanese name | |||||||||||||
Kanji | 不平等条約 | ||||||||||||
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The unequal treaties were a series of agreements made between Asian countries (including China and Korea) and foreign powers (including the United Kingdom,France,Germany,the United States,Russia,and Japan) during the 19th and early 20th centuries. [1] They were often signed following a military defeat suffered by the former party,or amid military threats made by the latter. Their terms specified obligations to be borne almost exclusively by the former party:provisions included the cession of territory,the payment of reparations,the opening of treaty ports,the relinquishment of the right to control tariffs and imports,and the granting of extraterritoriality to foreign citizens. [2]
With the rise of Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism in the 1920s,both the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party used the concept to characterize the Chinese experience of losing sovereignty between roughly 1840 to 1950. The term "unequal treaty" became associated with the concept of China's "century of humiliation",especially the concessions to foreign powers and the loss of tariff autonomy through treaty ports.
Japanese and Koreans also use the term to refer to several treaties that resulted in a reduction of their national sovereignty. Japan and China signed treaties with Korea like the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 and China–Korea Treaty of 1882,with each granting privileges to the former parties concerning Korea.
In China,the term "unequal treaty" first came into use in the early 1920s to describe the historical treaties,still imposed on the then-Republic of China,that were signed through the period of time which the American sinologist John K. Fairbank characterized as the "treaty century" which began in the 1840s. [3] The term was popularized by Sun Yat-sen. [4] : 53
In assessing the term's usage in rhetorical discourse since the early 20th century,American historian Dong Wang notes that "while the phrase has long been widely used,it nevertheless lacks a clear and unambiguous meaning" and that there is "no agreement about the actual number of treaties signed between China and foreign countries that should be counted as unequal." [3] However,within the scope of Chinese historiographical scholarship,the phrase has typically been defined to refer to the many cases in which China was effectively forced to pay large amounts of financial reparations,open up ports for trade,cede or lease territories (such as Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China (including Zhetysu) to the Russian Empire,Hong Kong and Weihaiwei to the United Kingdom,Guangzhouwan to France,Kwantung Leased Territory and Taiwan to the Empire of Japan,the Jiaozhou Bay concession to the German Empire and concession territory in Tientsin,Shamian,Hankou,Shanghai etc.),and make various other concessions of sovereignty to foreign spheres of influence,following military threats. [5]
The Chinese-American sinologist Immanuel Hsu states that the Chinese viewed the treaties they signed with Western powers and Russia as unequal "because they were not negotiated by nations treating each other as equals but were imposed on China after a war,and because they encroached upon China's sovereign rights ... which reduced her to semicolonial status". [6]
The earliest treaty later referred to as "unequal" was the 1841 Convention of Chuenpi negotiations during the First Opium War. The first treaty between the Qing dynasty and the United Kingdom termed "unequal" was the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842. [5]
Following Qing China's defeat,treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade,while also allowing foreign missionaries,at least in theory,to reside within China. Foreign residents in the port cities were afforded trials by their own consular authorities rather than the Chinese legal system,a concept termed extraterritoriality. [5] Under the treaties,the UK and the US established the British Supreme Court for China and Japan and United States Court for China in Shanghai.
After World War I,patriotic consciousness in China focused on the treaties,which now became widely known as "unequal treaties." The Nationalist Party and the Chinese Communist Party competed to convince the public that their approach would be more effective. [5] Germany was forced to terminate its rights,the Soviet Union surrendered them,and the United States organized the Washington Conference to negotiate them. [7]
After Chiang Kai-shek declared a new national government in 1927,the Western powers quickly offered diplomatic recognition,arousing anxiety in Japan. [7] The new government declared to the Great Powers that China had been exploited for decades under unequal treaties,and that the time for such treaties was over,demanding they renegotiate all of them on equal terms. [8]
After the Boxer Rebellion and the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902,Germany began to reassess its policy approach towards China. In 1907 Germany suggested a trilateral German-Chinese-American agreement that never materialised. Thus China entered the new era of ending unequal treaties on March 14,1917,when it broke off diplomatic relations with Germany,thereby terminating the concessions it had given that country,with China declaring war on Germany on August 17,1917. [9]
As World War I commenced,these acts voided the unequal treaty of 1861,resulting in the reinstatement of Chinese control on the concessions of Tianjin and Hankou to China. In 1919,the post-war peace negotiations failed to return the territories in Shandong,previously under German colonial control,back to the Republic of China. After it was determined that the Japanese forces occupying those territories since 1914 would be allowed to retain them under the Treaty of Versailles,the Chinese delegate Wellington Koo refused to sign the peace agreement,with China being the only conference member to boycott the signing ceremony. Widely perceived in China as a betrayal of the country's wartime contributions by the other conference members,the domestic backlash following the failure to restore Shandong would cause the collapse of the cabinet of the Duan Qirui government and lead to the May 4th movement. [10] [11]
On May 20,1921,China secured with the German-Chinese peace treaty (Deutsch-chinesischer Vertrag zur Wiederherstellung des Friedenszustandes) a diplomatic accord which was considered the first equal treaty between China and a European nation. [9]
Many treaties China considered unequal were repealed during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941,China became an ally with the United Kingdom and the United States,which then signed treaties with China to end British and American extraterritoriality in January 1943. [12] Significant examples outlasted World War II:treaties regarding Hong Kong remained in place until Hong Kong's 1997 handover,though in 1969,to improve Sino-Soviet relations in the wake of military skirmishes along their border,the People's Republic of China was forced to reconfirm the 1858 Treaty of Aigun and 1860 Treaty of Peking.[ citation needed ]
When the US expeditionary fleet led by Matthew Perry reached Japan in 1854 to force open the island nation for American trade,the country was compelled to sign the Convention of Kanagawa under the threat of violence by the American warships. [13] This event abruptly terminated Japan's 220 years of seclusion under the Sakoku policy of 1633 under unilateral foreign pressure and consequentially,the convention has been seen in a similar light as an unequal treaty. [14]
Another significant incident was the Tokugawa Shogunate's capitulation to the Harris Treaty of 1858,negotiated by the eponymous U.S. envoy Townsend Harris,which,among other concessions,established a system of extraterritoriality for foreign residents. This agreement would then serve as a model for similar treaties to be further signed by Japan with other foreign Western powers in the weeks to follow. [15]
The enforcement of these unequal treaties were a tremendous national shock for Japan's leadership as they both curtailed Japanese sovereignty for the first time in its history and also revealed the nation's growing weakness relative to the West through the latter's successful imposition of such agreements upon the island nation. An objective towards the recovery of national status and strength would become an overarching priority for Japan,with the treaty's domestic consequences being the end of the Bakufu,the 700 years of shogunate rule over Japan,and the establishment of a new imperial government. [16]
The unequal treaties ended at various times for the countries involved and Japan's victories in the 1894–95 First Sino-Japanese War convinced many in the West that unequal treaties could no longer be enforced on Japan.[ citation needed ]
Korea's first unequal treaty was not with the West,but instead with Japan. The Ganghwa Island incident in 1875 saw Japan send the warship Un'yō led by Captain Inoue Yoshika with the implied threat of military action to coerce the Korean kingdom of Joseon through the show of force. After an armed clash ensued around Ganghwa Island where the Japanese force was sent,which resulted in its victory,the incident subsequently forced Korea to open its doors to Japan by signing the Treaty of Ganghwa Island,also known as the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876. [17]
During this period Korea also signed treaties with Qing China and the West powers (such as the United Kingdom and the United States). In the case of Qing China,it signed the China–Korea Treaty of 1882 with Korea stipulating that Korea was a dependency of China and granted the Chinese extraterritoriality and other privileges, [18] and in subsequent treaties China also obtained concessions in Korea,such as the Chinese concession of Incheon. [19] [20] However,Qing China lost its influence over Korea following the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895.[ citation needed ]
As Japanese dominance over the Korean peninsula grew in the following decades,with respect to the unequal treaties imposed upon the kingdom by the West powers,Korea's diplomatic concessions with those states became largely null and void in 1910,when it was annexed by Japan. [21]
In 2018,Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad criticized the terms of the bilateral infrastructure projects under the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative in Malaysia and urged the Chinese negotiators to reassess them through invoking the historical memory of China's unequal treaties. [53] [54] Stating that "they know that when they lend big sums of money to a poor country,in the end they may have to take the project for themselves". He appealed by stating that "China knows very well that it had to deal with unequal treaties in the past imposed upon China by Western powers. So China should be sympathetic toward us. They know we cannot afford this." [55]
In international law,extraterritoriality or exterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law,usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations.
The Treaty of Tientsin,also known as the Treaty of Tianjin,is a collective name for several unequal treaties signed at Tianjin in June 1858. The Qing dynasty,Russian Empire,Second French Empire,United Kingdom,and the United States were the parties involved. These treaties,counted by the Chinese among the unequal treaties,opened more Chinese ports to foreign trade,permitted foreign legations in the Chinese capital Beijing,allowed Christian missionary activity,and effectively legalized the import of opium. They ended the first phase of the Second Opium War,which had begun in 1856 and were ratified by the Emperor of China in the Convention of Peking in 1860,after the end of the war.
The Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation signed by Britain and Japan,on 16 July 1894,was a breakthrough agreement;it heralded the end of the unequal treaties and the system of extraterritoriality in Japan. The treaty came into force on 17 July 1899.
The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 was made between representatives of the Empire of Japan and the Korean Kingdom of Joseon in 1876. Negotiations were concluded on February 26,1876.
The politics of the Joseon dynasty,which ruled Korea from 1392 to 1897,were governed by the reigning ideology of Korean Confucianism,a form of Neo-Confucianism. Political struggles were common between different factions of the scholar-officials. Purges frequently resulted in leading political figures being sent into exile or condemned to death.
The Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty was the first treaty between Great Britain and Japan,then under the administration of the Tokugawa shogunate. Signed on October 14,1854,it paralleled the Convention of Kanagawa,a similar agreement between Japan and the United States six months earlier which effectively ended Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion (sakoku). As a result of the treaty,the ports of Nagasaki and Hakodate were opened to British vessels,and Britain was granted most favored nation status with other western powers.
The Eulenburg expedition was a diplomatic mission conducted by Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg on behalf of Prussia and the German Customs Union in 1859–1862. Its aim was to establish diplomatic and commercial relations with China,Japan and Siam.
The Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan (1858) opened diplomatic relations and trade between the two counties.
The Ansei Treaties (Japanese:安政条約) or the Ansei Five-Power Treaties (Japanese:安政五カ国条約) are a series of treaties signed in 1858,during the Japanese Ansei era,between Japan on the one side,and the United States,Great Britain,Russia,Netherlands and France on the other. The first treaty,also called the Harris Treaty,was signed by the United States in July 1858,with France,Russia,Britain and the Netherlands quickly followed within the year:Japan applied to the other nations the conditions granted to the United States under the "most favoured nation" provision.
A Treaty of Peace,Amity,Commerce and Navigation,also known as the Shufeldt Treaty,was negotiated between representatives of the United States and Korea in 1882.
The France–Korea Treaty of 1886 was negotiated between representatives of France and Korea.
The Italy–Korea Treaty of 1884 was negotiated between representatives of Italy and Korea.
The Russia–Korea Treaty of 1884 was negotiated between representatives of Russia and Korea.
The Germany–Korea Treaty of 1883 was negotiated between representatives of Germany and Korea.
The United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883 was negotiated between representatives of the United Kingdom and Korea.
The Austria–Korea Treaty of 1892 was negotiated between representatives of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Joseon Korea.
The Belgium–Korea Treaty of 1901 was negotiated between representatives of the Kingdom of Belgium and the Korean Empire.
The Denmark–Korea Treaty of 1902 was negotiated between representatives of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Korean Empire.
The China–Korea Treaty of 1882 was negotiated between representatives of the Qing dynasty China and the Joseon dynasty in October 1882. This agreement has been described as the Joseon-Qing Communication and Commerce Rules;and it has been called the Sino-Korean Regulations for Maritime and Overland Trade. The treaty remained in effect until 1895. After 1895,China lost its influence over Korea because of the First Sino-Japanese War.
The Japan–Korea Protocol of August 1904 was made between representatives of the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire in 1904. Negotiations were concluded on August 22,1904.