The Haijin (海禁) or sea ban was a series of related isolationist policies in China restricting private maritime trading and coastal settlement during most of the Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty. The policy introduced by the Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang significantly hampered the growth of China's domestic trade,although the Ming was not able to enforce the policy in full despite official proclamations,and trade continued in forms like smuggling until the late Ming government opened the port of Yuegang for trade. Later,the early Qing dynasty's anti-insurgent "Great Clearance" (1661–1683) also caused considerable devastating effects on communities along the coast,until the Qing seized control of Taiwan and opened coastal ports to foreign trade.
The Taiping Rebellion,also known as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution,was a civil war in China between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The conflict lasted for 14 years,from its outbreak in 1850 until the fall of Taiping-controlled Nanjing—which they had renamed Tianjing "heavenly capital"—in 1864. However,the last rebel forces were not defeated until August 1871. Estimates of the conflict's death toll range between 20 and 30 million people,representing 5–10% of China's population. While the Qing ultimately defeated the rebellion,the victory came at a great cost to the state's economic and political viability.
Fujian is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north,Jiangxi to the west,Guangdong to the south,and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest city by population is Quanzhou,other notable cities include the port city of Xiamen and Zhangzhou. Fujian is located on the west coast of the Taiwan Strait as the closest geographically and culturally to Taiwan. Certain islands such as Kinmen are only approximately 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Xiamen in Fujian.
The Hakka,sometimes also referred to as Hakka Han,or Hakka Chinese,or Hakkas,are a Han Chinese subgroup whose ancestral homes are chiefly in the Hakka Chinese-speaking areas of Guangdong,Fujian,Jiangxi,Guangxi,Sichuan,Hunan,Zhejiang,Hainan,and Guizhou in China,as well as in Taoyuan City,Hsinchu County,Miaoli County,Pingtung County,and Kaohsiung City in Taiwan. Unlike other Han Chinese subgroups,the Hakkas are not named after a geographical region,e.g. a province,county or city,in China. That is because of their origin as northern Chinese refugees fleeing social unrest,upheaval and invasions throughout the northern parts of China throughout history who then sought sanctuary in the south where the Cantonese-speaking provinces such as Guangdong and Guangxi are. The Chinese characters for Hakka literally mean "guest families". The word is Cantonese in origin and as the name implies,they are the guest of the Cantonese people. Over the centuries though,they have since more or less assimilated with the Cantonese-speaking population. Modern day Hakka are generally identified by both full Hakka and by different degrees of Hakka ancestry and usually speak Hakka Chinese.
The Opium Wars were two conflicts waged between China and Western powers during the mid-19th century.
Hong Xiuquan,born Hong Huoxiu and with the courtesy name Renkun,was a Chinese revolutionary and religious leader who led the Taiping Rebellion against the Qing dynasty. He established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom over large portions of southern China,with himself as its "Heavenly King".
Li Hongzhang,Marquess Suyi was a Chinese statesman,general and diplomat of the late Qing dynasty. He quelled several major rebellions and served in important positions in the Qing imperial court,including the Viceroy of Zhili,Huguang and Liangguang.
Gulangyu,Gulang or Kulangsu is a pedestrian-only island off the coast of Xiamen,Fujian Province in southeastern China. A UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site,the island is about 2 km2 (0.77 sq mi) in area,and is reached by an 8-minute ferry ride from downtown Xiamen. Although only about 20,000 people live on the island,Gulangyu is a major domestic tourist destination,attracting more than 10 million visitors per year,and making it one of China's most visited tourist attractions. Gulangyu not only bans cars,but also bicycles. The only vehicles permitted are small electric buggies and electric government service vehicles.
Shikumen is a traditional Shanghainese architectural style combining Western and Chinese elements that first appeared in the 1860s.
The Nian Rebellion was an insurrection against the Qing dynasty in northern China from 1851 to 1868,contemporaneously with the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) in southern China. The rebellion was suppressed,but the population and economic losses contributed to the collapse of the empire in the early 20th century.
The Canton System served as a means for Qing China to control trade with the West within its own country by focusing all trade on the southern port of Canton. The protectionist policy arose in 1757 as a response to a perceived political and commercial threat from abroad on the part of successive Chinese emperors.
"Ever Victorious Army" was a small imperial army that fought rebels in late-19th-century China. It was directed and trained by Europeans. The Ever Victorious Army fought for the Qing dynasty against the rebels of the Nian and Taiping Rebellions.
The naval history of China dates back thousands of years,with archives existing since the late Spring and Autumn period regarding the Chinese navy and the various ship types employed in wars. The Ming dynasty of China was the leading global maritime power between 1400 and 1433,when Chinese shipbuilders built massive ocean-going junks and the Chinese imperial court launched seven maritime voyages. In modern times,the current People's Republic of China and the Republic of China governments continue to maintain standing navies through the People's Liberation Army Navy and the Republic of China Navy,respectively.
The Battle of Shanghai (太平軍二攻上海) was a major engagement of the Taiping Rebellion that occurred from June 1861 to July 1862. British and French troops used modern artillery on a large scale for the first time in China. Cannon fire inflicted heavy casualties on the Taiping forces,whose commander Li Xiucheng was wounded in the left leg by a shot fired from a cannon.
The Shanghai French Concession was a foreign concession in Shanghai,China from 1849 until 1943,which progressively expanded in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The concession came to an end in 1943,when Vichy France under German pressure signed it over to the pro-Japanese Reorganized National Government of China in Nanjing. For much of the 20th century,the area covered by the former French Concession remained the premier residential and retail district of Shanghai,and was also one of the centers of Catholicism in China. Despite re-development over the last few decades,the area retains a distinct character and is a popular tourist destination.
The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom,or the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (1851–1864),was a theocratic absolute monarchy which sought to overthrow the Qing dynasty. The Heavenly Kingdom,or Heavenly Dynasty,was led by Hong Xiuquan. Its capital was at Tianjing,present-day Nanjing. The unsuccessful war it waged against the Qing is known as the Taiping Rebellion.
The Red Turban Rebellion of 1854–1856 was a rebellion by members of the Tiandihui in the Guangdong province of South China.
The circuit intendant of Shanghai or the daotai of Shanghai,also formerly romanized as taotai or tao tai,was an imperial Chinese official who oversaw the circuit of Shanghai,then part of Jiangsu Province,in the Qing Empire. He oversaw the area's courts,law enforcement,civic defense,canals,and customs collection. As well as areas within modern Shanghai,his remit also included Qidong in present-day Jiangsu.
First-rank court official Xu Yingkui,courtesy names Jun'an (筠庵) and Changde (昌德),was a 19th-century Qing dynasty politician who served as Viceroy of Min-Zhe,Governor of Fuzhou and General of Fujian from 1898 to 1903. He was one of the two Chinese representatives who signed the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory,the other being Li Hongzhang. During Kang Youwei's Hundred Days' Reform,Xu opposed the reform and personally filed a complaint against Kang's conduct and political orientations.
