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In the 19th and early 20th century, these were the treaty ports in China.
| Port | Treaty | Open Date | Closed Date | Chinese Population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Niuzhuang, in the imperial Shengjing province, in Manchuria | in accordance with the British Treaty of Tientsin, 1858; | custom office opened 9 May 1864; | 74,000 | |
| Qinhuangdao, in Zhili province, also in Manchuria | in accordance with an imperial decree, 31 March 1898 | opened 15 December 1901 | 5,000 | |
| Tianjin, also in Zhili | in accordance with the British and French Peking Conventions, 1860 | opened May, 1861 | 750,000 | |
| Yantai, in Shandong | in accordance with British and French Treaty of Tientsin, 1858; | opened March, 1862 | 100,000 | |
| Jiaozhou, also in Shangdong | German Convention 6 March 1898 | opened 1 July 1899. | ||
| Port | Treaty | Open Date | Closed Date | Chinese Population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chongqing, in Sichuan province | opened November 1890 | 702,000 | ||
| Yichang, in Hubei | in accordance with Chefoo Convention, 1876 | opened 1 April 1877 | 50,000 | |
| Shashi, also in Hubei | Treaty of Shimonoseki, 1895 | opened 1 October 1876 | C85,000 | |
| Changsha, in Hunan | opened 1 July 1904 | 230,000 | ||
| Yuezhou, also in Hunan | imperial decree of 31 March 1898 | opened 13 November 1899 | 20,000 | |
| Hankou, also in Hubei | provincial regulations, 1861 | opened January 1862 | 530,000 | |
| Jiujiang, in Jiangxi | same regulations | opened January 1862 | 36,000 | |
| Wuhu, in Anhui | Chefoo Convention, 1876 | opened 1 April 1877 | 123,000 | |
| Nanjing, in Jiangsu | French Treaty of Tientsin, 1858 | opened 1 May 1899 | 261,000 | |
| Zhenjiang, also in Jiangsu | British Treaty, 1858 | opened April, 1861 | 170,000 |
| Port | Treaty | Open Date | Closed Date | Chinese Population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shanghai, in Jiangsu province | Treaty of Nanking, 1842 | opened officially 17 November 1843 | 651,000 | |
| Suzhou, also in Jiangsu | Treaty of Shimonoseki | opened 26 September 1896 | 500,000 | |
| Hangzhou, in Zhejiang | Shimonoseki Treaty | opened 26 September 1896 | 350,000 | |
| Ningbo, in Zhejiang | Shimonoseki Treaty | opened 26 September 1896 | 500,000 | |
| Wenzhou, also in Zhejiang | Chefoo Convention, 1876 | opened April, 1877 | 80,000 |
| Port | Treaty | Open Date | Closed Date | Chinese Population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sandu'ao , in Fujian province | imperial decree of 31 March 1898 | opened 1 May 1899 | 8000 | |
| Fuzhou, also in Fujian | Nan-king Treaty, 1842 | opened July, 1861 | 624,000 | |
| Amoy, also in Fujian | Nan-king Treaty 1842; | opened April, 1862 | 114,000 | |
| Guangzhou (Canton), in Guangdong province | Nanking Treaty, 1842 | opened October 1859 | 900,000 | |
| Kowloon, also in Guangdong; | opened April, 1887 | |||
| Lappa, again in Guangdong | opened 27 June 1871 | |||
| Kongmoon, in Guangdong | opened 7 March 1904; | 55,000 | ||
| Sanshui, also in Guangdong | Anglo-Chinese Convention, 4 February 1897 | opened 4 June 1897 | 5000 | |
| Shantou, also in Guangdong (customs house on Mayu Island) | English, French, and American Treaty of Tientsin, 1858 | opened January 1860; | 65,000 | |
| Wu-chou, in Kwang-si province | same convention | opened 4 June 1897; | 59,000 | |
| Kiung-chou (Hoy-hou), on Hainan Island in Guangdong | French, and English Treaties of Tientsin, 1858 | opened April, 1876 | 38,000 | |
| Pak-hoi, also in Guangdong | Chefoo Convention, 1876 | opened April, 1877; | 20,000 | |
| Port | Treaty | Open Date | Closed Date | Population |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Longzhou, in Guangxi province | French Treaty, 25 June 1887 | opened 1 June 1899 | 12,000 | |
| Mengzi, in Yunnan | French Treaty, 1887 | opened 30 April 1889 | 15,000 | |
| Simao, also in Yunnan | French Convention, 1895; British, 1896 | opened 2 January 1897 | 15,000 | |
| Tengyue, also in Yunnan | Convention of 4 February 1897 | opened 8 May 1902; | 10,000 | |
| Yadong, in (?) Tibet | opened 1 May 1894 | |||
| Nanning, also in Guangxi | opened by imperial decree, 3 February 1899, but had not (yet?) a customs office. |
According to the customs statistics, 6,917,000 Chinese inhabited the treaty ports in 1906. The foreign population included 1837 firms and 38,597 persons, mainly Europeans (British 9356, French 2189, German 1939, Portuguese 3184, Italians 786, Spaniards 389, Belgians 297, Austrians 236, Russians 273, Danes 209, Dutch 225, Norwegians 185, Swedes 135), Americans 3447, Brazilians 16, Japanese 15,548, Koreans 47, subjects of non-treaty powers 236.
The Convention of Kanagawa, also known as the Kanagawa Treaty or the Japan–US Treaty of Peace and Amity, was a treaty signed between the United States and the Tokugawa Shogunate on March 31, 1854. Signed under threat of force, it effectively meant the end of Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion (sakoku) by opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels. It also ensured the safety of American castaways and established the position of an American consul in Japan. The treaty precipitated the signing of similar treaties establishing diplomatic relations with other Western powers.
The Treaty of Nanking was an unequal treaty between Great Britain and the Qing dynasty of China to end the First Opium War (1839–1842), signed on 29 August 1842.
The Treaty of Shimonoseki, also known as the Treaty of Maguan in China and Treaty of Bakan in the period before and during World War II in Japan, was an unequal treaty signed at the Shunpanrō hotel, Shimonoseki, Japan on April 17, 1895, between the Empire of Japan and Qing China, ending the First Sino-Japanese War.
Treaty ports were the port cities in China and Japan that were opened to foreign trade mainly by the unequal treaties forced upon them by Western powers, as well as cities in Korea opened up similarly by the Qing dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan.
The Second Opium War, also known as the Second Anglo-Chinese War, the Second China War, the Arrow War, or the Anglo-French expedition to China, was a colonial war lasting from 1856 to 1860, which pitted the United Kingdom, France, and the United States against the Qing dynasty of China.
The Opium Wars were two conflicts waged between China and Western powers during the mid-19th century.
In international law, extraterritoriality or exterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations.
The Treaty of Tientsin, also known as the Treaty of Tianjin, is a collective name for several unequal treaties signed at Tianjin in June 1858. The Qing dynasty, Russian Empire, Second French Empire, United Kingdom, and the United States were the parties involved. These treaties, counted by the Chinese among the unequal treaties, opened more Chinese ports to foreign trade, permitted foreign legations in the Chinese capital Beijing, allowed Christian missionary activity, and effectively legalized the import of opium. They ended the first phase of the Second Opium War, which had begun in 1856 and were ratified by the Emperor of China in the Convention of Peking in 1860, after the end of the war.
The Bund is a waterfront area and a protected historical district in central Shanghai. The area centers on a section of Zhongshan Road within the former Shanghai International Settlement, which runs along the western bank of the Huangpu River in the eastern part of Huangpu. The area along the river faces the modern skyscrapers of Lujiazui in Pudong. The Bund usually refers to the buildings and wharves on this section of the road, as well as some adjacent areas. This region has a significant European influence, with the style of many structures most comparable to that of European cities, particularly Gothic, Baroque, Neoclassical, Romanesque, Art Deco, and Renaissance architecture. Additionally, some of the city's top eateries are located there. From the 1860s to the 1930s, it was the rich and powerful center of the foreign establishment in Shanghai, operating as a legally protected treaty port.
The unequal treaties were a series of agreements made between Asian countries – most notably Qing China, Tokugawa Japan and Joseon Korea and Western countries – most notably the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the United States and Russia – during the 19th and early 20th centuries. They were often signed following a military defeat suffered by the former party, or amid military threats made by the latter. Their terms specified obligations to be borne almost exclusively by the former party: provisions included the cession of territory, the payment of reparations, the opening of treaty ports, the relinquishment of the right to control tariffs and imports, and the granting of extraterritoriality to foreign citizens.
The Chinese Maritime Customs Service was a Chinese governmental tax collection agency and information service from its founding in 1854 until it split in 1949 into services operating in the Republic of China on Taiwan, and in the People's Republic of China. From its foundation in 1854 until the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the agency was known as the Imperial Maritime Customs Service.
The Canton System served as a means for Qing China to control trade with the West within its own country by focusing all trade on the southern port of Canton. The protectionist policy arose in 1757 as a response to a perceived political and commercial threat from abroad on the part of successive Chinese emperors.
The Shanghai International Settlement originated from the 1863 merger of the British and American enclaves in Shanghai, in which British and American citizens would enjoy extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction under the terms of unequal treaties agreed by both parties. These treaties were abrogated in 1943.
The East India Squadron, or East Indies Squadron, was a squadron of American ships that existed in the nineteenth century. It focused on protecting American interests in the Far East, while the Pacific Squadron concentrated on the western coasts of the Americas and the South Pacific Ocean. Its duties included the Yangtze River Patrol in China. The East India Squadron was established in 1835 and existed until it became part of the Asiatic Squadron in 1868.
The history of Shanghai spans over a thousand years and closely parallels the development of modern China. Originally a small agricultural village, Shanghai developed during the late Qing dynasty (1644–1912) as one of China's principal trading ports. Although nominally part of China, in practice foreign diplomats controlled the city under the policy of extraterritoriality. Since the economic reforms of the early 1990s the city has burgeoned to become one of Asia's major financial centers and the world's busiest container port.
Foreign concessions in China were a group of concessions that existed during the late Imperial China and the Republic of China, which were governed and occupied by foreign powers, and are frequently associated with colonialism and imperialism.
The Chefoo Convention, known in Chinese as the Yantai Treaty, was an unequal treaty between Britiain and Qing China, signed by Sir Thomas Wade and Li Hongzhang in Chefoo on 21 August 1876. The convention settled the Margary Affair in exchange for expanded commercial concessions to Britain.
Shanghailanders were foreign – principally European and American – settlers in the extraterritorial areas of Shanghai, China, between the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing and the mid-20th century.
The century of humiliation was a period in Chinese history beginning with the First Opium War (1839–1842), and ending in 1945 with China emerging out of the Second World War as one of the Big Four and established as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, or alternately, ending in 1949 with the founding of the People's Republic of China. The century-long period is typified by the decline, defeat and political fragmentation of the Qing dynasty and the subsequent Republic of China, which led to demoralizing foreign intervention, annexation and subjugation of China by Western powers, Russia, and Japan.
The Treaty of Canton was the first unequal treaty between Sweden-Norway and the Chinese Empire. The treaty was negotiated in March 1847 by Carl Fredrik Liljevalch and Qiying, the Viceroy of Liangguang, and was one of the unequal treaties between Western powers and China that followed the First Opium War.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain : Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "China". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company.
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