Smaller Ports
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Port management involves the management of ports.
According to a syllabus of the United Nations University:
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There are three broad port business models:
In 2008 The World Ports Climate Declaration (WPCD) was adopted by 55 of the world’s largest ports, committing to the long-term work on implementation of initiatives addressing environmental issues. [3] Another notable initiative, The Green Marine (GM) certification program, in which North American maritime corporations, including ports, seek to reduce their environmental impacts, was founded in 2007. [4] An evaluation of this program for Canadian ports over the course of eight years, however, show that only 7 out of 18 major ports “proactively integrated sustainability into their operations”. [5] The importance of environmental port regulation and management owes to the fact that the activities of ports are positioned in the intersection between energy and transport systems and connect a network of different sectors, markets, and value chains, making them a central part of the global economy. [6] While several functional activities are centered around ports, such as cargo handling and storage operations, intermodal connection, industrial activities, and port expansion, the most prevalent port activity is that of shipping, making the regulation of ports primarily driven by the IMO. [7]
The effectiveness of measures taken by ports only become consequential if adoption rates are high, suggesting that port collaboration and coordination around common schemes is needed. [2] Without such coordination, competition between ports could lead to a distortion of competition and environmental taxation where ports that are more heavily taxed suffer from shipping being diverted to rival ports. [8] [9] This is consistent with findings of a trade-off between port competitiveness and environmental protection measures taken by ports – a mechanism that is stronger for developing countries. [10] [11]
The adoption of environmental initiatives by ports is influenced by several different factors. Firstly, some ports are more likely to adopt measures than others. Ports in the EU have generally made more progress adopting environmental measures than North American and Asian Pacific ports. [12] Ports closer to densely populated areas are more likely to adopt these measures. Some experts posit that this owes to more pressure being put on these ports, since their pollution immediately affects close populations. [2] Ports operating with a landlord business model are also more likely to adopt abatement measures. [2] Ports that specialize in servicing container shipping are more likely to adopt abatement measures as compared to ports handling bulk commodities. Experts posit that this is likely connected with the nature of container ship activities. Container ships generally have a fixed round-trip route ensuring frequent and regular visits to specific ports. Because these ship calls are more frequent there is also a higher potential for emissions abatement. Further, container lines carry goods for producers which increasingly need to live up to sustainability requirements through their supply chain, making it increasingly necessary for container lines to focus on their environmental performance, if they want to keep these producers as customers. In turn, ports servicing container ships would need to respond with stronger emissions abatement measures, in efforts to keep container lines as their customers. [2]
Secondly, the types of initiatives most widely adopted focus on international environmental policy and management; investment in proactive environmental solutions; and enhanced stakeholder engagement. [12] Policy and management of ports predominantly centers around measures of regulating environmental standards over other measures such as pricing, market access control, and the monitoring and measuring of port activities. [7] In landlord ports and ports near densely populated areas both pricing strategies incentivizing port users to shift to low-emission technology and monitoring are more likely to be adopted over other measures such as improving operational efficiency or providing alternative fuel sources. [2] Adoption also depends on governments and their regulatory agenda along with the financial capacity and competence of port authorities. [13] When comparing European and West African ports, experts found that ports in Europe tend to focus on technical infrastructure and measures addressing air quality, energy and climate change mitigation, while ports in West Africa typically have an integrated business model and mostly implement measures targeting sustainable waste management, oil spills and ballast water management. [13]
A port is a maritime facility comprising one or more wharves or loading areas, where ships load and discharge cargo and passengers. Although usually situated on a sea coast or estuary, ports can also be found far inland, such as Hamburg, Manchester and Duluth; these access the sea via rivers or canals. Because of their roles as ports of entry for immigrants as well as soldiers in wartime, many port cities have experienced dramatic multi-ethnic and multicultural changes throughout their histories.
The Northern Sea Route (NSR) is a shipping route about 5,600 kilometres (3,500 mi) long, defined by Russian legislation as running from the entrances to the Novaya Zemlya straits in the west, along the Russian Arctic coast above Siberia through the Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea, and Chukchi Sea), to Cape Zhelaniya on the Bering Strait, at parallel 66 ° N and meridian of 168 ° 58′37 ″ W.
The Port of Hong Kong, located by the South China Sea, is a deepwater seaport dominated by trade in containerised manufactured products, and to a lesser extent raw materials and passengers. A key factor in the economic development of Hong Kong, the natural shelter and deep waters of Victoria Harbour provide ideal conditions for berthing and the handling of all types of vessels. It is one of the busiest ports in the world, in the three categories of shipping movements, cargo handled and passengers carried. This makes Hong Kong a Large-Port Metropolis.
Orient Overseas Container Line, commonly known as OOCL, is a container shipping and logistics service company with headquarters in Hong Kong. The company is incorporated in Hong Kong as Orient Overseas Container Line Limited and separately incorporated as Orient Overseas Container Line Inc. in Liberia. The latter was also re-domiciled to the Marshall Islands.
A sustainable business, or a green business, is an enterprise that has a minimal negative impact or potentially a positive effect on the global or local environment, community, society, or economy—a business that strives to meet the triple bottom line. They cluster under different groupings and the whole is sometimes referred to as "green capitalism." Often, sustainable businesses have progressive environmental and human rights policies. In general, a business is described as green if it matches the following four criteria:
Pollution prevention (P2) is a strategy for reducing the amount of waste created and released into the environment, particularly by industrial facilities, agriculture, or consumers. Many large corporations view P2 as a method of improving the efficiency and profitability of production processes through waste reduction and technology advancements. Legislative bodies have enacted P2 measures, such as the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 in the United States Congress.
Port security is part of a broader definition concerning maritime security. It refers to the defense, law and treaty enforcement, and counterterrorism activities that fall within the port and maritime domain. It includes the protection of the seaports themselves and the protection and inspection of the cargo moving through the ports. Security risks related to ports often focus on either the physical security of the port, or security risks within the maritime supply chain.
A shipping line or shipping company is a company whose line of business is ownership and operation of ships.
Sustainable consumption is the use of products and services in ways that minimizes impacts on the environment. Sustainable consumption is done in a way that needs are met for present humans but also for future generations. Sustainable consumption is often paralleled with sustainable production; consumption refers to use and disposal not just by individuals and households, but also by governments, businesses, and other organizations. Sustainable consumption is closely related to sustainable production and sustainable lifestyles. "A sustainable lifestyle minimizes ecological impacts while enabling a flourishing life for individuals, households, communities, and beyond. It is the product of individual and collective decisions about aspirations and about satisfying needs and adopting practices, which are in turn conditioned, facilitated, and constrained by societal norms, political institutions, public policies, infrastructures, markets, and culture."
The environmental effects of shipping include air pollution, water pollution, acoustic, and oil pollution. Ships are responsible for more than 18% of nitrogen oxides pollution, and 3% of greenhouse gas emissions.
Abatement cost is the cost of reducing environmental negatives such as pollution. Marginal cost is an economic concept that measures the cost of an additional unit. The marginal abatement cost, in general, measures the cost of reducing one more unit of pollution. Marginal abatement costs are also called the "marginal cost" of reducing such environmental negatives.
A circular economy is a model of production and consumption, which involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing and recycling existing materials and products for as long as possible. CE aims to tackle global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, waste, and pollution by emphasizing the design-based implementation of the three base principles of the model. The three principles required for the transformation to a circular economy are: designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems." CE is defined in contradistinction to the traditional linear economy. The idea and concepts of circular economy (CE) have been studied extensively in academia, business, and government over the past ten years. CE has been gaining popularity because it helps to minimize emissions and consumption of raw materials, open up new market prospects and, principally, increase the sustainability of consumption and improve resource efficiency.
Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans. Within governance, it incorporates the influence of non-state actors, i.e. stakeholders, NGOs and so forth, therefore the state is not the only acting power in policy making. However, ocean governance is complex because much of the ocean is a commons that is not ‘owned’ by any single person or nation/state. There is a belief more strongly in the US than other countries that the “invisible hand” is the best method to determine ocean governance factors. These include factors such as what resources we consume, what price we should pay for them, and how we should use them. The underlying reasoning behind this is the market has to have the desire in order to promote environmental protection, however this is rarely the case. This term is referred to as a market failure. Market failures and government failures are the leading causes of ocean governance complications. As a result, humankind has tended to overexploit marine resources, by treating them as shared resources while not taking equal and collective responsibilities in caring for them.
The Danish Maritime Authority is the agency of the Danish Government responsible for regulating and administrating Danish maritime affairs. The Danish Maritime Authority (DMA) is part of the Ministry of Industry, Business, and Financial Affairs. The Agency consists of the central authority and eight vision offices, including the office in Nuuk and the Centre for Maritime Health on Fanø. Its headquarters are in Korsør.
Arctic shipping routes are the maritime paths used by vessels to navigate through parts or the entirety of the Arctic. There are three main routes that connect the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans: the Northeast Passage, the Northwest Passage, and the mostly unused Transpolar Sea Route. In addition, two other significant routes exist: the Northern Sea Route, and the Arctic Bridge.
Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is a category of fuel oils of a tar-like consistency. Also known as bunker fuel, or residual fuel oil, HFO is the result or remnant from the distillation and cracking process of petroleum. For this reason, HFO is contaminated with several different compounds including aromatics, sulfur and nitrogen, making emissions upon combustion more polluting compared to other fuel oils. HFO is predominantly used as a fuel source for marine vessel propulsion using marine diesel engines due to its relatively low cost compared to cleaner fuel sources such as distillates. The use and carriage of HFO on-board vessels presents several environmental concerns, namely the risk of oil spill and the emission of toxic compounds and particulates including black carbon. Presently, the use of HFOs is banned as a fuel source for ships travelling in the Antarctic as part of the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code). For similar reasons, an HFO ban in Arctic waters is currently being considered.
Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to managing landscapes to help adapt agricultural methods, livestock and crops to the effects of climate change and, where possible, counteract it by reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, at the same time taking into account the growing world population to ensure food security. Thus, the emphasis is not simply on carbon farming or sustainable agriculture, but also on increasing agricultural productivity. "CSA ... is in line with FAO’s vision for Sustainable Food and Agriculture and supports FAO’s goal to make agriculture, forestry and fisheries more productive and more sustainable".
Yuen Kum Fai is a Singaporean academic specialising in maritime studies, strategy, and sustainable management. He is currently an assistant professor in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He is an appointed associate editor for Maritime Policy & Management, which is indexed by Web of Science and the flagship journal of international shipping and port research run by Taylor & Francis. In addition, he is an advisory board member for Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives owned by Elsevier. He is also an invited guest editor for the journal, Sustainability, on the special issue 'Sustainable Maritime Transportation Management and Policies', and for Maritime Policy & Management on the special issue 'Artificial Intelligence & Big Data in Shipping'. He is the recipient of the Inauguration Grant which is part of a Singapore Teaching and Academic Research Talent Scheme that aims to attract Singaporean academics to join Singapore's autonomous universities as pre-tenure assistant professors. His research interests include sustainable shipping management, service quality, supply chain integration, transport economics, and technology and innovation management. As of Sep-2020, Yuen has published over 70 international journal papers. According to Scopus, his h-index and citations are 17 and 663, respectively.
Sustainable finance is the set of financial regulations, standards, norms and products that pursue an environmental objective. It allows the financial system to connect with the economy and its populations by financing its agents while maintaining a growth objective. The long-standing concept was promoted with the adoption of the Paris Climate Agreement, which stipulates that parties must make "finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient development." In addition, sustainable finance had already a key role to play in the European Green Deal and in other EU International agreements, but since the COVID-19 pandemic its role is even more important.
The Initial IMO Strategy on the reduction of GHG emissions from ships, or Initial IMO GHG Strategy, is the framework through which the International Maritime Organization (IMO) aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from international maritime shipping. GHG emissions from shipping are about 3% of total GHG emissions, and under this strategy the IMO envisions their elimination within this century. However many companies and organizations say shipping should be decarbonized by 2050.
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