Women's fear of crime

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Although fear of crime is a concern for people of all genders, studies consistently find that women around the world tend to have much higher levels of fear of crime than men, despite the fact that in many places, and for most offenses, men's actual victimization rates are higher. [1] [2] Fear of crime is related to a perceived risk of victimization, but is not the same; fear of crime may be generalized instead of referring to specific offenses, and perceived risk may also be considered a demographic factor that contributes to fear of crime. Women tend to have higher levels for both perceived risk and fear of crime. [3] [4]

Contents

In women's everyday lives, fear of crime can have negative effects, such as reducing their environmental mobility. Studies have shown that women tend to avoid certain behaviors, such as walking alone at night, because they are fearful of crime, and would feel more comfortable with these behaviors if they felt safer. [5]

Causes

Social scientists have differing views on the causes of women's fear of crime. Some have argued that women's heightened fear of crime is due to women's higher levels physical vulnerability compared to men, although feminist work generally resists this generalization and often tries to relocate the cause to larger societal factors. [6]

Social factors

Awareness among women of the pervasive culture's view of women as more vulnerable than men, may influence perceptions of being more likely to be victimized and in turn contribute to their fear; in this way, it would be a perceived risk and not an actual risk of victimization that is the cause of women's fear. [3] Some research has also suggested that women and men are similarly fearful about crime, but that dominant cultural ideas about masculinity contributes to an increased reluctance in reporting behavior among men. [7]

One study has shown that women may have higher levels of fear of crime, not because they are scared of being victimized themselves, but fear of their children being victimized. [8] Women are more likely than men to see their relationships with others as an interdependent relationship. This interdependent relationship makes women more scared of crimes being committed against their loved ones than themselves. This distinction of relationships cause women's fear of crime to be higher than men's fear of crime, because men do not see their relationships as interdependent. This study argues that women's fear of crime is caused by traditional societal gender roles. [8]

Feminist theories

Feminist discourse on fear of crime tends to explain women's higher levels of fear with the unequal gender structure in most societies, which places women beneath men within the power structure and thus puts them especially at risk for victimization by men. [1] This theory refers to the oppressive social control of women, arguing that some crimes against women (such as rape) and the socialization that women receive to feel vulnerable and fear male violence are used by the patriarchy to assert male dominance and "keep women in their place." [9] Some feminist researchers argue that the questions that are being asked in studies of women's fear of crime do not adequately represent their actual fear. [10] These researchers argue that abuse by men in close personal relationships is not adequately measured by typical questions on surveys, because those typical questions ask questions about crime outside of the home. [10] They argue that women's victimization by people in their close personal relationships is not being used as a factor in measuring women's fear of crime. [10]

Rape fear

Some feminist scholars argue rape is the most gendered crime by victimization. They suggest fear of rape is the most important and most unique element of women's fear of crime, or even that women's fear of crime is a generalized fear of rape. [11] [12] Proponents of this theory, often referred to as the "shadow of sexual assault hypothesis," often note that women tend to fear that rape will co-occur with other crimes, such as burglary, a fear that is not found among men. [13] [14]

Sexual harassment and gendered fears

One study has shown that a man's typical response to a burglary was anger, while a woman's typical response was fear that was typical of a woman that had been sexually assaulted. [15] Some supporters of the theory also note that sexual harassment, which most women will experience in their lifetimes, especially contributes to the fear of rape; in some cases, women's rejection of unwanted sexual advances leads to threats, and even "benevolent" harassment may increase women's wariness and fear of men in public spaces. [9] [12] While the fear of rape is the strongest among women, men also have a fear of rape, especially when looking at college aged men. [16] While men do fear sexual assault, they are more likely to fear crimes such as burglary, but there is evidence that men's fear of sexual assault is correlated with their fear of other violent crimes, supporting the shadow hypothesis. [16]

Socialization of women

The fear of rape, unlike other fears of specific crimes, is almost exclusive to women. [11] Among women, it is also one of the strongest crime-related fears, and is the strongest crime-related fear for young women. [5] Levels of fear of rape vary among women by age, race/ethnicity, residential area, and other factors, but are especially high for women who have been victims of rape in the past or know victims personally (the latter group may include a significant portion of women, with one study estimating that over half of women know rape victims). [12] Women are socialized from a very young age that rape can happen anywhere, to anyone, at any time. [16] They are taught that they should always be aware of the possibility of rape and protect themselves from it. [16] Young women are taught strategies to keep themselves safe, and this idea is instilled in them at a young age. [16] This teaching women about the possibility of rape at a young age may contribute to higher levels of fear of crime in women. Studies have shown that women that take more precautionary steps to avoid being raped have more fear of actually being raped, whereas women who work nights and are outside in the dark tend to have less fear of rape. [16] This may be because women that are out in the dark alone are more familiar with the area, so they feel that there is less of a threat. [16]

"Sexual terrorism"

One researcher has coined the term "sexual terrorism" to describe violence against women that is intended to keep the patriarchal society that we live in alive. [17] "Sexual Terrorism" includes behaviors such as splitting women into groups of "good" and "bad", producing media that degrades women, and supporting men that commit acts of violence towards women. [17] The fear of rape may also be related to the fear of murder, as women tend to overestimate the proportion of rape victims who are murdered during their attacks. Stigma and blame are also factors: what many feminists refer to as the "rape myth," the popular idea that women can be blamed for their rape and that women are responsible for preventing rape by the regulation of their behavior, often serves to support the fear of rape. [12]

Demographic differences

Although women as a whole demographic are more fearful of crime, specific subgroups of women may have higher levels of fear or be more likely to change their behavior because of it. In many studies, the demographics found to have the highest generalized fear of crime are single, older, urban, women of color, and of lower socioeconomic class. [5] For fear of victimization for specific crimes, the demographics with the highest levels of fear may be different.

Geography

Generally, research has demonstrated that women from urban areas have higher levels of fear of crime. Even within cities, fear levels may differ from neighborhood to neighborhood. Increased social disorganization in the neighborhood (as measured by homelessness, drug sales, vandalism, prostitution, etc.) and higher rates of neighborhood serious crime lead to higher levels of fear of crime for both men and women, but both factors have a stronger effect on women's fear of crime. [3] Recreational spaces within the urban environment can also have differentially risk, both real and perceived, with many women reporting feeling unsafe in public parks and play spaces, especially after dark. [18]

Urban and rural communities tend to have very different levels of fear of crime. Rural areas are almost always perceived by residents and outsiders as safer, so it is often assumed that fear of crime levels will be lower there. Still, 2005 research in New Zealand and the United Kingdom noted that fear of crime levels in rural areas is on the rise, and found that sources of fear of crime among rural women often include perceived encroachment of urban influence (through people or attitudes) into their communities. [19]

Race and ethnicity

Theorists have suggested that Black and Latina women, and women of color in general, in the United States may have higher rates of fear of crime due to increased social vulnerability; because of institutional racism and sexism against women of color, their identities may put them at greater risk of victimization, leading to higher levels of fear. [6] Some theorists have suggested that African American women may have more fear of crime, because they are exposed to more crime due to living in lower socioeconomic areas. [17] Studies have shown that African American women are more sexualized than White women, so their fear of sexual assault is higher. [17] This fear of crime leads to more psychological distress among African American women. [17] Studies have shown that there is a positive link between men who hold sexist attitudes and men who hold racist attitudes, which leads to an increased possibility of accepting common rape myths. [17]

Proposals

In general, proposed solutions to women's fear of crime either place the responsibility on individual women (through preventive strategies) or on official agencies (through infrastructure improvements, anti-rape education, more involved policing, etc.), and are often framed as a combination of both. [20] Well designed parks and play spaces, for example, that are properly managed to be well-used and that offer social activities help women and girls to feel safe. [18] Proposals that expect women to protect themselves from crime, most focus on the dangers for women in public spaces; however, as women usually face their highest rates of victimization in the home or at the hands of known people, these campaigns have been suggested to be particularly ill-equipped to help solve the problem of women's high fear of crime, and to support an untrue picture of women's victimization. [1]

Avoidance

One of the most common individual strategies for dealing with fear of crime and preventing victimization is simple avoidance, the attempt to stay away from areas (such as dark alleys or public transportation) where it is believed victimization is likely to occur; research has found that women employ avoidance strategies more often than men do. [5] [12] Avoided areas may include neighborhoods with high crime rates, but for many women also include any unfamiliar areas. Women may also employ other isolation strategies by avoiding social interaction with strangers, ignoring them or moving quickly and with purpose to discourage interaction [9]

Defenses

Another common method of allaying fear of crime among women is by "crime-proofing" homes or possessions. Popular examples include home security systems, locking away valuables, or participating in neighborhood watch programs. These strategies are used by people of all genders, but some are more often employed by women. For example, many women in an American study reported choosing purses with zippers or holding purses protectively to defend against theft and purse-snatching. [9]

As interest in women's safety and women's fear of crime has increased, so has interest in precautionary strategies; for example, in the past few decades, women's self-defense classes, books, and other self-defense instruction have become increasingly popular. [20] Some women also choose to carry weapons, such as knives or guns, or repellents like pepper spray and Mace to ward off potential attackers. [9]

Feminist commentary

Feminist commentators usually take the view that the responsibility for reducing women's fear of crime lies with the society, and that fear must be combatted at its source by addressing men's violence against women. [1]

Worldwide

Although most research on women's fear of crime has been done in English-speaking countries, with the most done in the United States, similar trends in women's fear of crime have been found around the world. [21]

Africa

A 2014 study using data from 20 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa concluded that fear of crime has a stronger negative effect on women's subjective well-being compared to men's, with subjective wellbeing defined as self-reported satisfaction with life. In the study, fear of crime had a statistically significant correlation with subjective wellbeing for females, but no significant correlation for males, suggesting that for the men in the study, fear of crime was not an important factor in determining their happiness and life satisfaction. [22]

Asia

A 2013 study of Hong Kong social work students found significant gender differences in fear of crime levels. Consistent with the shadow of sexual assault hypothesis, the study found that the women had the highest levels of fear for rape, and that fear of rape was a predictor for fear of other crimes. Hong Kong has one of the lowest rates of crime and victimization in the world, so this study may suggest that the presence and size of gender differences in fear of crime are not strongly correlated with total crime and victimization rates. [14]

Europe

A 1998 study in Glasgow, Scotland, found a gender disparity in fear of crime levels smaller than what is generally accepted. The study also found that men and women with similar fear levels tended to use similar reasoning to explain their fear of crime or lack of fear, although men's and women's fear appeared in different situations (men tended to be more often fearful about property crime, whereas women were more fearful about violent crime). [7]

Middle East

A 2010 Turkish study using a large nationwide sample confirmed that women expressed significantly higher levels of fear of crime than men. The study also found that previous victimization, a consistent predictor for higher levels of fear in women, was present at close to equal rates in the male and female samples, suggesting that prior victimization has a stronger effect on women's fear of crime than on men's. Also, if the study's sample is representative of the Turkish population, women have slightly higher victimization rates than men, and so their fear does not reflect the "gender-fear paradox" of victimization found in many other developed countries. [21]

India

A study conducted in India has shown that Indian women have more fear of being victimized by a stranger than by people with whom they have close relationships. While the women expressed fear of strangers, they changed their behaviors and attitudes to please the men close to them. [23] These women would make sure they had dinner cooked at a certain time, and would not go out, because they did not want to make their husbands or fathers-in-law angry. [23] Although they changed themselves to avoid disagreements with the men in their lives, they were unable to acknowledge the change of their behaviors as fear. [23] These women were unable to label their behavior changes to please the men in their lives as fear. [23] These women felt like they were more likely to be victimized on the street by a stranger than by people in their close personal relationships. [23] This study also found that women that were victimized previously were more likely to admit to fear in close personal relationships. [23]

Related Research Articles

Some victims of rape or other sexual violence incidents are male. Historically, rape was thought to be, and defined as, a crime committed solely against females. This belief is still held in some parts of the world, but rape of males is now commonly criminalized and has been subject to more discussion than in the past.

Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted sexual act—or attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or coercion—or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their consent, by any individual regardless of their relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed, and may be physical, psychological, or verbal. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.

Prison rape commonly refers to the rape of inmates in prison by other inmates or prison staff. In 2001, Human Rights Watch estimated that at least 4.3 million inmates had been raped while incarcerated in the United States. A United States Department of Justice report, Sexual Victimization in Prisons and Jails Reported by Inmates, states that "In 2011–12, an estimated 4.0% of state and federal prison inmates and 3.2% of jail inmates reported experiencing one or more incidents of sexual victimization by another inmate or facility staff in the past 12 months or since admission to the facility, if less than 12 months." However, advocates dispute the accuracy of the numbers, saying they seem to under-report the real numbers of sexual assaults in prison, especially among juveniles.

Sex differences in crime are differences between men and women as the perpetrators or victims of crime. Such studies may belong to fields such as criminology, sociobiology, or feminist studies. Despite the difficulty of interpreting them, crime statistics may provide a way to investigate such a relationship from a gender differences perspective. An observable difference in crime rates between men and women might be due to social and cultural factors, crimes going unreported, or to biological factors. The nature or motive of the crime itself may also require consideration as a factor. Gendered profiling might affect the reported crime rates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rape culture</span> Society in which rape is pervasive and normalised

Rape culture is a setting, as described by some sociological theories, in which rape is pervasive and normalized due to that setting's attitudes about gender and sexuality. Behaviors commonly associated with rape culture include victim blaming, slut-shaming, sexual objectification, trivializing rape, denial of widespread rape, refusing to acknowledge the harm caused by sexual violence, or some combination of these. It has been used to describe and explain behavior within social groups, including prison rape and in conflict areas where war rape is used as psychological warfare. Entire societies have been alleged to be rape cultures.

Date rape is a form of acquaintance rape and dating violence. The two phrases are often used interchangeably, but date rape specifically refers to a rape in which there has been some sort of romantic or potentially sexual relationship between the two parties. Acquaintance rape also includes rapes in which the victim and perpetrator have been in a non-romantic, non-sexual relationship, for example as co-workers or neighbors.

Sex is correlated with the prevalence of certain mental disorders, including depression, anxiety and somatic complaints. For example, women are more likely to be diagnosed with major depression, while men are more likely to be diagnosed with substance abuse and antisocial personality disorder. There are no marked gender differences in the diagnosis rates of disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Men are at risk to suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to past violent experiences such as accidents, wars and witnessing death, and women are diagnosed with PTSD at higher rates due to experiences with sexual assault, rape and child sexual abuse. Nonbinary or genderqueer identification describes people who do not identify as either male or female. People who identify as nonbinary or gender queer show increased risk for depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder. People who identify as transgender demonstrate increased risk for depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Rape by gender classifies types of rape by the sex and gender of both the rapist and the victim. This scope includes both rape and sexual assault more generally. Most research indicates that rape affects women disproportionately, with the majority of people convicted being men; however, since the broadening of the definition of rape in 2012 by the FBI, more attention is being given to male rape, including females raping males.

Rape is a traumatic experience that affects the victim (survivor) in a physical, psychological, and sociological way. Even though the effects and aftermath of rape differ among victims, individuals tend to suffer from similar issues found within these three categories. Long-term reactions may involve the development of coping mechanisms that will either benefit the victim, such as social support, or inhibit their recovery. Seeking support and professional resources may assist the victim in numerous ways.

Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures, and affects people across society, at all levels of economic status; however, indicators of lower socioeconomic status have been shown to be risk factors for higher levels of domestic violence in several studies. In the United States, according to the Bureau of Justice Statistics in 1995, women reported a six times greater rate of intimate partner violence than men. However, studies have found that men are much less likely to report victimization in these situations.

Sexual violence refers to a range of completed or attempted sexual acts in which the affected party does not or is unable to consent. Theories on the causes of sexual violence are numerous and have come out of many different disciplines, such as women's studies, public health, and criminal justice. Proposed causes include military conquest, socioeconomics, anger, power, sadism, traits, ethical standards, laws, and evolutionary pressures. Most of the research on the causes of sexual violence has focused on male offenders.

Victimisation is the state or process of being victimised or becoming a victim. The field that studies the process, rates, incidence, effects, and prevalence of victimisation is called victimology.

Violence against prostitutes include violent and harmful acts, both physical or psychological, against individuals engaging in prostitution. It occurs worldwide, with the victims of such acts of violence being predominantly women. In extreme cases, violent acts have led to their murder while in their workplace.

Campus sexual assault is the sexual assault, including rape, of a student while attending an institution of higher learning, such as a college or university. The victims of such assaults are more likely to be female, but any gender can be victimized. Estimates of sexual assault, which vary based on definitions and methodology, generally find that somewhere between 19–27% of college women and 6–8% of college men are sexually assaulted during their time in college.

Violence against men are violent acts that are disproportionately committed against men or boys. Men are overrepresented as both victims and perpetrators of violence. Violence against women is the opposite category, where acts of violence are targeted against the female gender.

The feminist pathways perspective is a feminist perspective of criminology which suggests victimization throughout the life course is a key risk factor for women's entry into offending.

Rape myths are prejudicial, stereotyped, and false beliefs about sexual assaults, rapists, and rape victims. They often serve to excuse sexual aggression, create hostility toward victims, and bias criminal prosecution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Domestic violence in same-sex relationships</span>

Domestic violence in same-sex relationships or intragender violence is a pattern of violence or abuse that occurs within same-sex relationships. Domestic violence is an issue that affects people of any sexuality, but there are issues that affect victims of same-sex domestic violence specifically. These issues include homophobia, internalized homophobia, HIV and AIDS stigma, STD risk and other health issues, lack of legal support, and the violence they face being considered less serious than heterosexual domestic violence. Moreover, the issue of domestic violence in same-sex relationships has not been studied as comprehensively as domestic violence in heterosexual relationships. However, there are legal changes being made to help victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships, as well as organizations that cater specifically to victims of domestic violence in same-sex relationships.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sexual assault of LGBT persons</span>

Sexual assault of LGBT people, also known as sexual and gender minorities (SGM), is a form of violence that occurs within the LGBT community. While sexual assault and other forms of interpersonal violence can occur in all forms of relationships, it is found that sexual minorities experience it at rates that are equal to or higher than their heterosexual counterparts. There is a lack of research on this specific problem for the LGBT population as a whole, but there does exist a substantial amount of research on college LGBT students who have experienced sexual assault and sexual harassment.

Secondary victimisation refers to further victim-blaming from criminal justice authorities following a report of an original victimisation.

References

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