Anemia in pregnancy

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Anemia is a condition in which blood has a lower-than-normal amount of red blood cells or hemoglobin. [1] Anemia in pregnancy is a decrease in the total red blood cells (RBCs) or hemoglobin in the blood during pregnancy. Anemia is an extremely common condition in pregnancy world-wide, conferring a number of health risks to mother and child. [2] While anemia in pregnancy may be pathologic, in normal pregnancies, the increase in RBC mass is smaller than the increase in plasma volume, leading to a mild decrease in hemoglobin concentration referred to as physiologic (or dilutional) anemia. [3] Maternal signs and symptoms are usually non-specific, but can include: fatigue, pallor, dyspnea, palpitations, and dizziness. [4] There are numerous well-known maternal consequences of anemia including: maternal cardiovascular strain, reduced physical and mental performance, reduced peripartum blood reserves, increased risk for peripartum blood product transfusion, and increased risk for maternal mortality. [5]

Contents

Signs and symptoms

Common symptoms are headache, fatigue, lethargy, tachycardia, tachypnea, paresthesia, pallor, glossitis and cheilitis. [6] [7] Severe symptoms include congestive heart failure, placenta previa, abruptio placenta, and operative delivery. [6] [8]

Causes

In the simplest of terms, anemia results from impaired production of red blood cells, increased destruction of red blood cells or blood loss. Anemia can be congenital (i.e. conditions such as sickle cell anemia and thalassemia) or acquired (i.e., conditions such as iron-deficiency anemia or anemia as a result of an infection). The causes of anemia during pregnancy can be subdivided into two main categories; physiologic and non-physiologic causes.[ citation needed ]

Physiologic Causes

Dilutional anemia: There is an increase in overall blood volume during pregnancy, and even though there is an increase in overall red blood cell mass, the increase in the other parts of the blood like plasma decrease the overall percentage of red blood cells in

circulation. [9]

Non-physiologic Causes [7]

Iron deficiency anemia: this can occur from the increased production of red blood cells, which requires a lot of iron and also from inadequate intake of iron, which increase in pregnancy.

Hemoglobinopathies : Thalassemia and sickle cell disease

Dietary deficiencies: Folate deficiency and vitamin B12 deficiency are common causes of anemia in pregnancy. Folate deficiency occurs due to diets low in leafy green vegetables, and animal sources of protein. [10] B12 deficiency tends to be more common in individuals with Crohn's disease or gastrectomies. [11]

Cell membrane disorders: Hereditary spherocytosis

Autoimmune causes: lead to the hemolysis of red blood cells (Ex: autoimmune hemolytic anemia). [12]

Hypothyroidism and chronic kidney disease [13] [14]

Parasitic infestations: some examples are hookworm or Plasmodium species

Bacterial or viral infections

Iron deficiency is the most common cause of anemia in the pregnant woman. During pregnancy, the average total iron requirement is about 1200 mg per day for a 55 kg woman. This iron is used for the increase in red cell mass, placental needs and fetal growth. About 40% of women start their pregnancy with low to absent iron stores and up to 90% have iron stores insufficient to meet the increased iron requirements during pregnancy and the postpartum period.[ citation needed ]

The majority of women presenting with postpartum anemia have pre-delivery iron deficiency anemia or iron deficiency anemia combined with acute blood loss during delivery.[ citation needed ]

Adverse outcomes

Maternal outcomes

Studies have suggested that severe maternal morbidity (SMM) is increased approximately twofold in antepartum maternal anemia. SMM is defined by maternal death, eclampsia, transfusion, hysterectomy, or intensive care unit admission at delivery. Additional complications may include postpartum haemorrhage, preeclampsia, cesarean delivery, and infections. [15]

Fetal outcomes

Iron deficiency during pregnancy is linked to a number of harmful effects on the fetus such as intrauterine growth restriction, death in utero, infection, preterm delivery and neurodevelopmental damage, which may be irreversible. [16] [17] [18]

Diagnosis

The most useful test with which to render a diagnosis of anemia is a low RBC count, however hemoglobin and hematocrit values are most commonly used in making the initial diagnosis of anemia. Testing involved in diagnosing anemia in pregnant women must be tailored to each individual patient. Suggested tests include: hemoglobin and hematocrit (ratio of red blood cells to the total blood volume), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), erythrocyte count (number of red blood cells in the blood), red cell distribution width (RDW), reticulocyte count, and a peripheral smear to assess red blood cell morphology. If iron deficiency is suspected, additional tests such as: serum iron, total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), transferrin saturation, and plasma or serum ferritin may be warranted. It is important to note that references ranges for these values are often not the same for pregnant women. Additionally, laboratory values for pregnancy often change throughout the duration of a woman's gestation. For example, the reference values for what level of hemoglobin is considered anemic varies in each trimester of pregnancy. [19] [9]

- First trimester hemoglobin < 11 g/dL

- Second trimester hemoglobin < 10.5 g/dL

- Third trimester hemoglobin < 11 g/dL

- Postpartum hemoglobin < 10 g/dL

Listed below are normal ranges for important lab values in the diagnosis of anemia. Keep in mind that these ranges might change based on each patient's stage in pregnancy: [7]

- Hemoglobin: Men (13.6-16.9), women (11.9-14.8)

- Hematocrit: Men (40-50%), women (35-43%)

- MCV: 82.5 - 98

- Reticulocyte count: Men (16-130X10^3/microL or X10^9), Women (16-98/microL or X10^9)

Differential using MCV

MCV can be a great measure for differentiating between different forms of anemia. MCV measures the average size of your red blood cells. There are three cut off measurements for MCV. If the MCV is < 80fL it is considered microcytic. If the MCV is from 80 to 100 fL then it is considered a normocytic anemia. If the MCV is > 100 fL it is considered a macrocytic anemia. Some causes of anemia can be characterized by different ranges of MCV depending upon the severity disease. Here are common causes of anemia organized by MCV. [20]

MCV < 80 fL

- Iron deficiency

- Thalassemia

- Anemia of chronic disease or anemia of inflammation

MCV 80 - 100 fL

- Iron deficiency

- Infection

- Hypothyroidism

- Liver disease or alcohol use

- Drug-induced

- Hemolysis

- Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency

MCV > 100 fL

- Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency

- Drug induced

- Liver disease or alcohol use

- Hypothyroidism

- Myelodysplastic Syndromes

Pregnancy

Pregnant women need almost twice as much iron as women who are not pregnant do. Not getting enough iron during pregnancy raises risk of premature birth or a low-birth-weight baby. [21] Hormonal changes in the pregnant woman result in an increase in circulating blood volume to 100 mL/kg with a total blood volume of approximately 6000–7000 mL. While red cell mass increases by 15–20% during pregnancy, plasma volume increases by 40%. [22] Hemoglobin levels less than 11 g/dL during the first trimester, less than 10.5 g/dL during the second and third trimesters and less than 10 mg/dL in the postpartum period are considered anemic. [23]

Prevention

Anemia is a very common complication of pregnancy. A mild form of anemia can be a result of dilution of blood. There is a relatively larger increase in blood plasma compared to total red cell mass in all pregnancies, which results in dilution of the blood and causes physiologic anemia . These changes take place to ensure adequate amount of blood is supplied to the fetus and prepares body for expected blood loss at the time of delivery. [24]

More severe forms of anemia can be a due to iron deficiency, vitamin deficiency, or other causes.[ citation needed ]

Prevention of iron deficiency anemia

Iron deficiency is the most common cause of non-physiologic anemia. Iron deficiency anemia can be prevented with supplemental oral iron 27–30 mg daily. [25] This dose typically corresponds to the amount of iron found in iron-containing prenatal vitamins. Consult with your medical provider to determine whether additional supplements are needed. Complete routine labs during pregnancy for early detection of iron deficiency anemia. [25]

Iron deficiency anemia can also be prevented by eating iron-rich foods. This includes dark green leafy vegetables, eggs, meat, fish, dried beans, and fortified grains. [26]

Prevention of other causes of anemia

This may be only applicable to select individuals.

Vitamin B12: Women who consume strictly vegan diets are advised to take Vitamin B12 supplements; this helps prevent anemia due to low Vitamin B12 levels. [27]

Folic Acid: Folic acid supplement recommended for women with history of documented folate deficiency. Folic acid supplementation also recommended for prevention of neural tube defects in the fetus. [27]

Treatment

For treatment of iron deficiency anemia in pregnant women, iron supplementation at doses higher than prenatal supplements is recommended. The standard doses of oral iron ranges from 40 mg to 200 mg elemental iron daily. [28] Consult with your medical provider to determine the exact dose needed for your condition, higher than needed doses of iron supplements may sometimes lead to more adverse effects. [19]

Iron supplements are easy to take, however adverse effects in some cases may include gastrointestinal side effects, nausea, diarrhea, and/or constipation. In cases when oral iron supplement is not tolerable, other options include longer intervals between each oral dose, liquid iron supplements, or intravenous iron. [19] Intravenous iron may also be used in cases of severe iron deficiency anemia during second and third trimesters of pregnancy. [29]

Anemias due to other deficiencies such as folic acid or vitamin B12 can also be treated with supplementation as well; dose may vary based on level of deficiency.[ citation needed ]

Other forms of anemias, such as inherited or acquired anemias prior to pregnancy, will require continuous management during pregnancy as well. [27]

Treatment should target the underlying disease or condition affecting the patient.

Epidemiology

According to the WHO estimation, the global prevalence of anemia during pregnancy is over 40%, and the prevalence of anemia during pregnancy in North America is 6%. [33] Prevalence of anemia in pregnancy is higher in developing countries compared to developed countries. 56% of pregnant women from low and middle income countries were reported to have anemia. [34]

Guidelines

  1. Pavord, S; Myers, B; Robinson, S; Allard, S; Strong, J; Oppenheimer, C (Mar 2012). "UK guidelines on the management of iron deficiency in pregnancy". Br J Haematol. 156 (5): 588–600. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2141.2011.09012.x. PMID   2251200. S2CID   12588512.
  2. Markova, V; Norgaard, A; Jorgensen, KJ; Langhoff-Roos, J (2015). "Treatment for women with postpartum iron deficiency anaemia". Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2015 (8): CD010861. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010861.pub2. PMC   8741208 . PMID   26270434.
  3. Peña-Rosas, JP; De-Regil, LM; Garcia-Casal, MN; Dowswell, T (22 July 2015). "Daily oral iron supplementation during pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (7): CD004736. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004736.pub5. PMC   4233117 . PMID   26198451.
  4. Dahlke, JD; Mendez-Figueroa, H; Maggio, L; Hauspurg, AK; Sperling, JD; Chauhan, SP; Rouse, DJ (2015). "Prevention and management of postpartum hemorrhage: a comparison of 4 national guidelines". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 213 (1): 761–10. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2015.02.023. PMID   25731692.
  5. Shaylor, R; Weiniger, CF; Austin, N; Tzabazis, A; Shander, A; Goodnough, LT; Butwick, AJ (2017). "National and international guidelines for patient blood management in obstetrics: a qualitative review". Anesth Analg. 124 (1): 216–32. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001473. PMC   5161642 . PMID   27557476.
  6. Tunçalp, Ő; Souza, JP; Gűlmezoglu, M (Dec 2013). "New WHO recommendations on prevention and treatment of postpartum hemorrhage". Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 123 (3): 254–6. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2013.06.024. PMID   24054054. S2CID   40664131.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anemia</span> Medical condition

Anemia or anaemia is a blood disorder in which the blood has a reduced ability to carry oxygen due to a lower than normal number of red blood cells, or a reduction in the amount of hemoglobin. The name is derived from Ancient Greek: ἀναιμία anaimia, meaning 'lack of blood', from ἀν- an-, 'not' and αἷμα haima, 'blood'. When anemia comes on slowly, the symptoms are often vague, such as tiredness, weakness, shortness of breath, headaches, and a reduced ability to exercise. When anemia is acute, symptoms may include confusion, feeling like one is going to pass out, loss of consciousness, and increased thirst. Anemia must be significant before a person becomes noticeably pale. Symptoms of anemia depend on how quickly hemoglobin decreases. Additional symptoms may occur depending on the underlying cause. Preoperative anemia can increase the risk of needing a blood transfusion following surgery. Anemia can be temporary or long term and can range from mild to severe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pernicious anemia</span> Anemia caused by vitamin B12 deficiency

Pernicious anemia is a disease in which not enough red blood cells are produced due to a deficiency of vitamin B12. Those affected often have a gradual onset. The most common initial symptoms are feeling tired and weak. Other symptoms of anemia may include shortness of breath, lightheadedness, headaches, sore red tongue, cold hands and feet, pale or yellow skin, chest pain, and an irregular heartbeat. The digestive tract may also be disturbed giving symptoms that can include nausea and vomiting, heartburn, upset stomach and loss of appetite. Symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency may include decreased ability to think, numbness in the hands and feet, memory problems, blurred vision, trouble walking, poor balance, muscle weakness, decreased smell and taste, poor reflexes, clumsiness, depression, and confusion. Without treatment, some of these problems may become permanent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iron-deficiency anemia</span> Medical condition

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red blood cell distribution width</span> Measure of red blood cell volume variation as part of a standard blood test

Red blood cell distribution width (RDW), as well as various types thereof, is a measure of the range of variation of red blood cell (RBC) volume that is reported as part of a standard complete blood count. Red blood cells have an average volume of 80-100 femtoliters, but individual cell volumes vary even in healthy blood. Certain disorders, however, cause a significantly increased variation in cell size. Higher RDW values indicate greater variation in size. Normal reference range of RDW-CV in human red blood cells is 11.5–15.4%. If anemia is observed, RDW test results are often used together with mean corpuscular volume (MCV) results to determine the possible causes of the anemia. It is mainly used to differentiate an anemia of mixed causes from an anemia of a single cause.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Megaloblastic anemia</span> Medical condition

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Folate deficiency</span> Abnormally low level of folate (vitamin B9) in the body

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anisocytosis</span> Medical condition

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Vitamin B<sub>12</sub> deficiency Disorder resulting from low blood levels of vitamin B12

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The term macrocytic is from Greek words meaning "large cell". A macrocytic class of anemia is an anemia in which the red blood cells (erythrocytes) are larger than their normal volume. The normal erythrocyte volume in humans is about 80 to 100 femtoliters. In metric terms the size is given in equivalent cubic micrometers. The condition of having erythrocytes which are too large, is called macrocytosis. In contrast, in microcytic anemia, the erythrocytes are smaller than normal.

Normocytic anemia is a type of anemia and is a common issue that occurs for men and women typically over 85 years old. Its prevalence increases with age, reaching 44 percent in men older than 85 years. The most common type of normocytic anemia is anemia of chronic disease.


Anemia is a deficiency in the size or number of red blood cells or in the amount of hemoglobin they contain. This deficiency limits the exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and the tissue cells. Globally, young children, women, and older adults are at the highest risk of developing anemia. Anemia can be classified based on different parameters, and one classification depends on whether it is related to nutrition or not so there are two types: nutritional anemia and non-nutritional anemia. Nutritional anemia refers to anemia that can be directly attributed to nutritional disorders or deficiencies. Examples include Iron deficiency anemia and pernicious anemia. It is often discussed in a pediatric context.

Thyroid disease in pregnancy can affect the health of the mother as well as the child before and after delivery. Thyroid disorders are prevalent in women of child-bearing age and for this reason commonly present as a pre-existing disease in pregnancy, or after childbirth. Uncorrected thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy has adverse effects on fetal and maternal well-being. The deleterious effects of thyroid dysfunction can also extend beyond pregnancy and delivery to affect neurointellectual development in the early life of the child. Due to an increase in thyroxine binding globulin, an increase in placental type 3 deioidinase and the placental transfer of maternal thyroxine to the fetus, the demand for thyroid hormones is increased during pregnancy. The necessary increase in thyroid hormone production is facilitated by high human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) concentrations, which bind the TSH receptor and stimulate the maternal thyroid to increase maternal thyroid hormone concentrations by roughly 50%. If the necessary increase in thyroid function cannot be met, this may cause a previously unnoticed (mild) thyroid disorder to worsen and become evident as gestational thyroid disease. Currently, there is not enough evidence to suggest that screening for thyroid dysfunction is beneficial, especially since treatment thyroid hormone supplementation may come with a risk of overtreatment. After women give birth, about 5% develop postpartum thyroiditis which can occur up to nine months afterwards. This is characterized by a short period of hyperthyroidism followed by a period of hypothyroidism; 20–40% remain permanently hypothyroid.

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  25. 1 2 "Recommendations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the United States". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2021-09-11.
  26. ↑ "Anemia and Pregnancy". www.hematology.org. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
  27. 1 2 3 Achebe, Maureen M.; Gafter-Gvili, Anat (2017-02-23). "How I treat anemia in pregnancy: iron, cobalamin, and folate". Blood. 129 (8): 940–949. doi: 10.1182/blood-2016-08-672246 . ISSN   1528-0020. PMID   28034892.
  28. ↑ "Recommendations to prevent and control iron deficiency in the United States. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention". MMWR. Recommendations and Reports: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Recommendations and Reports. 47 (RR-3): 1–29. 1998-04-03. ISSN   1057-5987. PMID   9563847.
  29. ↑ Juul, Sandra E.; Derman, Richard J.; Auerbach, Michael (2019). "Perinatal Iron Deficiency: Implications for Mothers and Infants". Neonatology. 115 (3): 269–274. doi: 10.1159/000495978 . ISSN   1661-7819. PMID   30759449.
  30. ↑ Markova, Veronika; Norgaard, Astrid; Jørgensen, Karsten Juhl; Langhoff-Roos, Jens (2015-08-13). "Treatment for women with postpartum iron deficiency anaemia". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (8): CD010861. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010861.pub2. ISSN   1469-493X. PMC   8741208 . PMID   26270434.
  31. ↑ Dahlke, Joshua D.; Mendez-Figueroa, Hector; Maggio, Lindsay; Hauspurg, Alisse K.; Sperling, Jeffrey D.; Chauhan, Suneet P.; Rouse, Dwight J. (July 2015). "Prevention and management of postpartum hemorrhage: a comparison of 4 national guidelines". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 213 (1): 76.e1–10. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2015.02.023. ISSN   1097-6868. PMID   25731692.
  32. ↑ Shaylor, Ruth; Weiniger, Carolyn F.; Austin, Naola; Tzabazis, Alexander; Shander, Aryeh; Goodnough, Lawrence T.; Butwick, Alexander J. (January 2017). "National and International Guidelines for Patient Blood Management in Obstetrics: A Qualitative Review". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 124 (1): 216–232. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000001473. ISSN   1526-7598. PMC   5161642 . PMID   27557476.
  33. ↑ "Preconception care to reduce maternal and childhood mortality and morbidity". www.who.int. Retrieved 2021-09-11.
  34. ↑ Stephen, Grace; Mgongo, Melina; Hussein Hashim, Tamara; Katanga, Johnson; Stray-Pedersen, Babill; Msuya, Sia Emmanueli (2018-05-02). "Anaemia in Pregnancy: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Adverse Perinatal Outcomes in Northern Tanzania". Anemia. 2018: 1–9. doi: 10.1155/2018/1846280 . PMC   5954959 . PMID   29854446.
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