The Comitium (Italian: Comizio) was the original open-air public meeting space of Ancient Rome, and had major religious and prophetic significance.[1] The name comes from the Latin word for "assembly".[2] The Comitium location at the northwest corner of the Roman Forum was later[vague] lost in the city's growth and development, but was rediscovered and excavated by archaeologists at the turn of the twentieth century.[citation needed] Some of Rome's earliest monuments; including the speaking platform known as the Rostra, the Columna Maenia, the Graecostasis and the Tabula Valeria were part of or associated with the Comitium.
Most Roman cities had a similar Comitium for public meetings (L. contiones) or assemblies for election, councils and tribunals.[5] As part of the forum, where temples, commerce, judicial, and city buildings were located, the Comitium was the center of political activity. Romans tended to organize their needs into specific locations within the city. As the city grew, the larger Comitia Centuriata met on the Campus Martius, outside the city walls. The Comitium remained of importance for formal elections of some magistrates; however, as their importance decayed after the end of the republic, so did the importance of the Comitium.[6]
The earliest use of the Comitium as a political assembly area, along with the beginnings of Rome itself, is blurred between legend and archaeological discovery. The traditional stories of King Servius Tullius and Romulus have many similarities regarding the origins of the comitia, leading Romulus to be often interpreted as a copy of Tullius. Both were closely related to the God Vulcan, played a role in organizing the comitia, and were depicted as founders of Rome.[7] Other conflicting, or "duel" mythologies include the supposed tomb of Romulus, who was struck and killed during the Sabine conflict and was buried under the Vulcanal. Alternative legends state that he was only wounded and that spot was where Faustulus was killed separating the twins during combat. Many of the legends themselves transferred to the Comitum from the Palatine. For example, the pomeriam where Remus is said to have slept as well as the Ficus Ruminalis and the sculpture of the she-wolf suckling the twins have competing legends.[8] The original Palatine settlement, Roma quadrata, contained the relics of Romulus. An extension of the square city is seen in the "Septimontium", the original seven hills.[9] Ancient stories suggest that Tarpeia was drawing water from a spring here when she saw Tatius for the first time.[10]
The Comitium contains the earliest surviving document of the Roman State, a cippus or inscribed pedestal found on the second floor of the Comitium, and dated to 450BC. This inscription informs citizens of their civic duties.[11] Roman tribunals were held in the Comitium before other alternative locations became acceptable. Eventually such trials would be moved to the basilicas or the forum, except for more elaborate affairs.[12] The Comitium had a number or temporary wooden structures that could be taken down during the flood season. Court would generally consist of a magistrate, the condemned (generally kept in a cage below the elevated platform), representation for the condemned, and the prosecutor. The Rostra Vetera was a permanent tribunal eventually made into a war monument but still within the Comitium templum. The Rostra itself may have been considered a templum. A sundial that stood on the Rostra for a period of time was eventually replaced with newer devices.[1] The site has been used for capital punishment, as well as to display the bodies and limbs of defeated political opponents and funerals. Both the forum and Comitium had been used for public exhibitions.[12]
In his 1912 study, Francis Macdonald Cornford explains that the Roman Comitium was inaugurated as a temple, shaped like a square and oriented to the four corners of the sky. But Plutarch describes a circular site traced by Romulus at the founding of Rome using divination, after he had sent for men of Etruria who taught him the necessary sacred rites. A circular trench was cut into the ground and votive offerings and samples of earth from each man's native lands were placed within. "The ditch is called mundus- the same name given firmament (Ολυμπος)." From the center of this circle, the circuit of the city wall was designated and plowed. Everything within this area was sacred. It was the traditional center of the city as a similar area was in the original Palatine settlement.[13] The Umbilicus urbis Romae marks the center of Rome.[14] The senate council probably began meeting within an old Etruscan temple on the north side of the Comitium identified as belonging to the Curia Hostilia from the seventh century BC. Tradition holds that Tullus Hostilius built or refurbished this structure.[15] A royal complex may have existed near the House of the Vestal Virgins on one end of the Forum Romanum.[16]
Under the Roman Republic
When Rome became a republic, the original altar and Shrine of Vulcan may have served as a podium for senators or political opponents. Next to this spot is where the Rostra has its early beginnings. It is believed that the tradition of speaking to crowds from an elevated platform for political purposes may have begun as early as the first king of Rome.[17] In this area was another raised platform for speakers, with ascending and descending stairs on either side. The first structure to be called "Rostra" was on the south east section of the forecourt of the Curia Hostilia at the edge of the Comitium. As the population grew, not all Romans could fit in the Comitium, and speakers in the later Republic would turn their backs on the Curia and crowds within the Comitium and direct their speech to the crowd in the forum.[18] All of the city's most important decisions and laws were made in the senate. A law required that any bill not approved within an inaugurated and consecrated space was not valid. For this reason all meeting spaces of the senate were temples. Over time as the senate's size and power increased, so did the size of the senate house. In 80BC the curia was enlarged by Sulla, who also added heating to the building for the first time.[19]
In 55BC a political war broke out within the city between two factions, one led by Clodius, the other by his adversary Milo. The Rostra became a fortress and was more than once used to throw deadly missiles upon the opposing side. On January 2, 52BC, Clodius died at the hands of the opponents near Bovillae, setting off a riot as his followers carried the body to the Comitium and cremated it on a funeral pyre improvised with the senatorial seating from the Curia Hostilia. The fire consumed the Curia, destroying it as well as damaging the Basilica Porcia. Faustus Sulla, son of the dictator Sulla, was commissioned by the senate to rebuild the Curia. His structure lasted only seven years until Julius Caesar replaced it with a building of his own design.[20]
Structures within the Comitium
The Comitium was open towards the forum. At the boundary were the monuments and statues recording political events and recognizing famous Romans.[21] There were four sacred fig trees in the city, three of which were within the forum. A tree planted near the Temple of Saturn was removed when its root system began undermining a valued statue. In the medio foro a fig tree stood aside an olive tree and a grape vine. Verrius Flaccus, Pliny and Tacitus state that a third tree stood in the Comitium near the statue of the augur Attus Navia who, legend says, split a wet stone with a razor in the Comitium and transferred the Ficus ruminalis or its sacred importance from the base of the Palatine hill to the assembly area.[22][23] Scholars still refer to the Ficus Navia as the Ficus Ruminalis while accepting the difference.[24]Livy reports that a statue to Publius Horatius Cocles was erected in the Comitium.[25] There existed another grandstand within the Comitium beside the Rostra. The Graecostasis was located on the northwest side of the forum.[26] Beside the Rostra and the Graecostasis was the Columna Maenia. In 338 BC, Consul Gaius Maenius erected a column that some historians believe to be from the atrium of his home which was sold to Cato and Flaccus[which?] as mentioned by Pseudo-Asconius (Caec. 50).[27]Pliny states that the accensus consulum announced the supremam horam, the time when the sun had moved downward from the Columna Maenia to the Carcer. This was done from the same location as the call for midday, the Curia. The column was south of the place of observation or on a line which passed from the Rostra and Graecostasis.[28] The Tabula Valeria was one of the first public works of its kind in the city. In 263BC, Consul Manius Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messalla placed a painting of his victory over Heiro and the Carthaginians in Sicily, on the side of the ancient curia. Samuel Ball Platner states in his book, The topography and monuments of ancient Rome (1911):
A more probable explanation is that the Tabula Valeria was an inscription in bronze or marble, containing the provisions of the famous Valerio-Horatian laws concerning the office of tribune. Such a tablet might very naturally be set up near their subsellia."[29]
The Comitium changed after the time of Caesar. The original spot of many of the monuments and statues was altered drastically. One of the biggest changes was to the Rostra Vetera.[30][31] This structure changed considerably even before 44BC. It began with the first curia for the senate in 600 BC and a shrine that was added 20 years later[32] where, it is said, miraculous events occurred of milk and blood raining down from the heavens.[33]
Under Julius Caesar
Caesar's rise to power as a military general along with his successful campaigns led to sharing of power within the Republic, known as the First Triumvirate. The shared power did not last and Caesar became dictator for life (and the last Roman dictator). The Comitium was reduced in size twice in consecutive order by Cornelius Sulla and again by Julius Caesar.[34] One of Caesar's many building projects was to remove or replace the Rostra Vetera, level the Comitium and dismantle the curia and realign it with the new Rostra.[35]
An episode that may have contributed to the Liberatores conspiracy against Caesar was on the occasion of the festival of the Lycea, or Lupercalia. Mark Antony, as one of the participants, approached Caesar while he stood in the Comitium on the Rostra. Antony ceremoniously attempted to place a laurel wreath on Caesar's head. Caesar theatrically refused, and received applause from the people. This was done several times until the wreath was finally placed upon the head of a statue of Caesar, which was then immediately torn down by Caesar's enemies.[36]
The Rostra was the most prestigious spot in Rome to speak from. Cicero remarked[where?] on the honor in his first speech during his term as praetor. It was the first time Cicero spoke from the Rostra.[37] The Philippics became one of the most popular writings of the orator. The works marked a return to active politics in 43BC after a long retirement. In them,[citation needed] he attacked Mark Antony as the greatest threat to republican government after Caesar's death.[38] He wrote of the libertas or freedoms that the citizens of Rome had forfeited under Julius Caesar and violently denounced Mark Antony.[39] He made at least one of these epic speeches from the Rostra. When the conspirators had all been defeated, Augustus had tried but failed to keep Cicero's name off the death list. Eventually Antony wins and has the orator's head and hands displayed on the Rostra.[40]
Archaeology
The Comitium in Rome
During the Middle Ages artifacts from the ancient Roman civilization sparked curiosity with collectors.[vague] Early digging throughout Europe amounted to little more than destructive treasure hunting and grave robbing. Formal archaeology in Rome only began in the 19th century with the foundation of the Instituto di Corrispondenza and the work of Edward Gerhard. Starting with museums rather than excavation, archaeological work began by studying and cataloguing existing collections as background knowledge for the philological study of antiquity.[41]
A number of German archaeologists joined Gerhard to map out the city of Rome, the forum and the Comitium being of great importance as the topographical center.[42] He was joined by Chevalier Bunsen, Earnst Platner, Wilhelm Röstell, B. G. Niebuhr and Friedrich Hoffmann in writing the book Beschreibung der Stadt Rom in 1817, which was published in 1832.[43] The theories presented did not have full support from their peers. In his book, A dictionary of Greek and Roman geography published in 1854, Sir William Smith remarked:
The German views respecting the Capitol, the Comitium, and several other important points, have found many followers; but to the writer of the present article they appear for the most part not to be proved; and he has endeavoured in the preceding pages to give his reasons for that opinion.
No major excavation of the Comitium was undertaken until the turn of the century. Previous digs had only uncovered levels dated to the late empire. Such was the case in 1870, when later pavements or structures were located and digging was stopped by request for viewing and study and never resumed. In 1898, a committee was established to examine and study the earlier architectural fragments to establish an order for restoration of ancient buildings. The conclusion of this study was that new and more detailed excavations were required. That same year, G. Boni requested that the tramway in front of the church of Sant'Adriano al Foro be removed. His request was met in October and substantial new funds were made available for an extended excavation.[44] In December 1898, excavations began. Between 1899 and 1903 Boni and his collaborators discovered the Lapis Niger (the "Black Rock") as well as other artifacts while excavating the Comitium.[45] During the medieval period the Comitium had been converted into a Christian cemetery and part of the Curia made into a catacomb. Consequently, over 400bodies were unearthed and moved during excavations.[46]
In front of the Arch of Severus begins the line along which the main work of the past months has been done. The whole front wall of San Adriano, the Curia of Diocletian, and the Comitium are now in sight. The Comitium is paved with blocks of travertine and extends to and around the lapis niger, which, although on the same level, is protected on at least two sides by a sort of curb. This pavement of the Comitium extends out to a point directly opposite the middle of the Arch of Severus, and ends just beyond the lapis niger with a curved front wall, which is itself built over an older tufa pavement. Further back it also rests upon older structures. Part of the Comitium had evidently been built over at a late period in something the same way as the Basilica Aemilia.
The Comitia of other urban centers
In 1953 an American excavation at the Roman Latin colony of Cosa, 138 kilometres (86mi) northwest of Rome, along the coast of Italy, in modern Tuscany, identified the remains of the city's Comitium and found rounded amphitheatre steps directly in front of the local senate house. The discovery prompted further excavations in Rome at the site of the Comitium in 1957.[47] Cosa was founded in 237BC as a military outpost in the newly conquered territory of the Etruscans. The city's port and town features were laid out in the third centuryBC using regular town plans, with intersecting streets at right angles and forum and cult center on the arx.[48]
In Sparta, paintings have been taken out of certain walls by cutting through the bricks, then have been placed in wooden frames, and so brought to the Comitium to adorn the aedileship of [C. Visellius] Varro and [C. Licinius] Murena.[49]
The Roman Forum, also known by its Latin name Forum Romanum, is a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the centre of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum.
Curia in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally likely had wider powers, they came to meet for only a few purposes by the end of the Republic: to confirm the election of magistrates with imperium, to witness the installation of priests, the making of wills, and to carry out certain adoptions.
The pomerium or pomoerium was a religious boundary around the city of Rome and cities controlled by Rome. In legal terms, Rome existed only within its pomerium; everything beyond it was simply territory (ager) belonging to Rome.
The Curia Hostilia was one of the original senate houses or "curiae" of the Roman Republic. It was believed to have begun as a temple where the warring tribes laid down their arms during the reign of Romulus. During the early monarchy, the temple was used by senators acting as a council to the king. Tullus Hostilius was believed to have replaced the original structure after fire destroyed the converted temple. It may have held historic significance as the location of an Etruscan mundus and altar. The Lapis Niger, a series of large black marble slabs, was placed over the altar where a series of monuments was found opposite the Rostra. This curia was enlarged in 80 BC by Lucius Cornelius Sulla during his renovations of the comitium. That building burned down in 52 BC when the supporters of the murdered Publius Clodius Pulcher used it as a pyre to cremate his body.
The Rostra was a large platform built in the city of Rome that stood during the republican and imperial periods. Speakers would stand on the rostra and face the north side of the Comitium towards the senate house and deliver orations to those assembled in between. It is often referred to as a suggestus or tribunal, the first form of which dates back to the Roman Kingdom, the Vulcanal.
Cosa was an ancient Roman city near the present Ansedonia in southwestern Tuscany, Italy. It is sited on a hill 113 m above sea level and 140 km northwest of Rome on the Tyrrhenian Sea coast. It has assumed a position of prominence in Roman archaeology owing to its excavation.
The Basilica Julia was a structure that once stood in the Roman Forum. It was a large, ornate, public building used for meetings and other official business during the Roman Empire. Its ruins have been excavated. What is left from its classical period are mostly foundations, floors, a small back corner wall with a few arches that are part of both the original building and later imperial reconstructions and a single column from its first building phase.
The Ficus Ruminalis was a wild fig tree that had religious and mythological significance in ancient Rome. It stood near the small cave known as the Lupercal at the foot of the Palatine Hill and was the spot where according to tradition the floating makeshift cradle of Romulus and Remus landed on the banks of the Tiber. There they were nurtured by the she-wolf and discovered by Faustulus. The tree was sacred to Rumina, one of the birth and childhood deities, who protected breastfeeding in humans and animals. St. Augustine mentions a Jupiter Ruminus.
The Theatre of Pompey, also known by other names, was a structure in Ancient Rome built during the latter part of the Roman Republican era by Pompey the Great. Completed in 55 BC, it was the first permanent theatre to be built in Rome. Its ruins are located at Largo di Torre Argentina.
The Regia was a two-part structure in Ancient Rome lying along the Via Sacra at the edge of the Roman Forum that originally served as the residence or one of the main headquarters of kings of Rome and later as the office of the pontifex maximus, the highest religious official of Rome. It occupied a triangular patch of terrain between the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Divus Julius and Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Only the foundations of Republican/Imperial Regia remain. Like the Curia it was destroyed and rebuilt several times, as far back as the Roman monarchy. Studies have found multiple layers of similar buildings with more regular features, prompting the theory that this "Republican Regia" was to have a different use.
The Temple of Caesar or Temple of Divus Iulius, also known as Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar, delubrum, heroon or Temple of the Comet Star, is an ancient structure in the Roman Forum of Rome, Italy, located near the Regia and the Temple of Vesta.
The Forum of Caesar, also known by the Latin Forum Iulium or Forum Julium, Forum Caesaris, was a forum built by Julius Caesar near the Forum Romanum in Rome in 46 BC.
The Lapis Niger is an ancient shrine in the Roman Forum. Together with the associated Vulcanal it constitutes the only surviving remnants of the old Comitium, an early assembly area that preceded the Forum and is thought to derive from an archaic cult site of the 7th or 8th century BC.
The Curia Julia is the third named curia, or senate house, in the ancient city of Rome. It was built in 44 BC, when Julius Caesar replaced Faustus Cornelius Sulla's reconstructed Curia Cornelia, which itself had replaced the Curia Hostilia. Caesar did so to redesign both spaces within the Comitium and the Roman Forum. The alterations within the Comitium reduced the prominence of the Senate and cleared the original space. The work, however, was interrupted by Caesar's assassination at the Curia of Pompey of the Theatre of Pompey, where the Senate had been meeting temporarily while the work was completed. The project was eventually finished by Caesar's successor, Augustus Caesar, in 29 BC.
The Curia Cornelia was a place where the Roman Senate assembled beginning c. 52 BC. It was the largest of all the Curiae built in Rome. Its construction took over a great deal of the traditional comitium space and brought the senate building into a commanding location within the Roman Forum as a whole. It was the Senate House of the time of Julius Caesar and is significant because its location was moved by him to diminish the Senate's dominance within the City and Republic.
The Graecostasis was a platform in the Comitium near the Roman Forum, located to the west of the Rostra. Placed at the southwest end of the Comitium, the platform was the designated spot for all representatives of foreign nations and dignitaries from the Republic and Empire's domain.
The lautumiae were tufa quarries that became a topographical marker in ancient Rome. They were located on the northeast slope of the Capitoline Hill, forming one side of the Graecostasis, where foreign embassies gathered prior to appearing before the Roman Senate.
The Curia of Pompey, sometimes referred to as the Curia Pompeia, was one of several named meeting halls from Republican Rome of historic significance. A curia was a designated structure for meetings of the senate. The Curia of Pompey was located at the entrance to the Theater of Pompey.
The Columna Maenia was an honorary column erected in the Comitium of the Roman Republic by Gaius Maenius in 338 BC for his victory over the Latins at the Battle of Antium. Gaius Maenius also adorned the Rostra, with the naval rams of six ships from the Antiate fleet confiscated by Rome. The column was beside the Rostra and the Graecostasis. Some historians believe the column to be from the atrium of Gaius Maenius's home which was sold to Cato and Flaccus as mentioned by Pseudo-Asconius.
References
1 2 Vasaly, Ann (1993). Representations. University of California Press. pp.61–64. ISBN978-0-520-20178-1.
↑ Pais, Cosenzahor, Ettorie, Emilio (1906). Ancient legends of Roman history. London, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., LTD. pp.33.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ How, Leigh, Walter Wybergh, Henry Devenish (June 2, 2008). A history of Rome to the death of Caesar. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. pp.37. ISBN978-1-4365-7150-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Lanciani, Rodolfo Amedeo (1897). The ruins and excavations of ancient Rome. Houghton Mifflin. pp.262.
↑ Frier, Bruce W. (March 1, 1999). Libri annales pontificum maximorum. University of Michigan Press. pp.127–128. ISBN978-0-472-10915-9.
↑ Cornford, Francis Macdonald (November 8, 1991). From religion to philosophy: a study in the origins of western speculation. Princeton University Press. pp.53. ISBN978-0-691-02076-1.
↑ Italy. Soprintendenza archeologica di Roma, Adriano La Regina (2004). Archaeological guide to Rome: the Roman Forum, the Palatine, the Capitol and the Capitoline museums, the Imperial forums, the Coliseum, the Domus Aurea. Electa. ISBN978-88-435-8366-9.
↑ Cornell, Tim (October 5, 1995). The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars ... Routledge; 1 edition. pp.126. ISBN978-0-415-01596-7.
↑ Rosenstein, Morstein-Marx, Nathan Stewart, Robert (December 13, 2006). A companion to the Roman Republic. Wiley-Blackwell. pp.354. ISBN978-1-4051-0217-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Evans, Jane DeRose (September 1, 1992). The art of persuasion: political propaganda from Aeneas to Brutus. University of Michigan Press. pp.75–78. ISBN978-0-472-10282-2.
↑ Briscoe, John (February 25, 2008). A commentary on Livy, books 38-40. Oxford University Press, USA. pp.366. ISBN978-0-19-929051-2.
↑ O'Connor, Charles James (September 1909). "The Graecostasis and its vicinity". Bulletin: Philology and Literature Series. 3: 188. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
↑ Platner, Samuel Ball (1911). The topography and monuments of ancient Rome. Allyn and Bacon. pp.232.
↑ Sumi, Geoffrey (September 28, 2005). Ceremony and power: performing politics in Rome between Republic and Empire. University of Michigan Press; illustrated edition. pp.78–80. ISBN978-0-472-11517-4.
↑ Plutarch, Scott-Kilvert, Plutarch, Ian (October 30, 1965). Makers of Rome, nine lives: Coriolanus, Fabius Maximus, Macellus, Cato the ... Penguin Classics. pp.281–282. ISBN978-0-14-044158-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Morstein-Marx, Robert (March 15, 2004). Mass oratory and political power in the late Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. pp.53. ISBN978-0-521-82327-2.
↑ Hubbard, Thomas K. (May 12, 2003). Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: a sourcebook of basic documents. University of California Press; 1 edition. pp.341. ISBN978-0-520-23430-7.
↑ Skinner, Quentin (September 16, 2002). Visions of politics. Cambridge University Press. pp.314. ISBN978-0-521-58925-3.
↑ Ballif, Moran, Michelle, Michael (March 30, 2005). Classical rhetorics and rhetoricians: critical studies and sources. Praeger Publishers. pp.105. ISBN978-0-313-32178-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Andrén, Anders (January 31, 1998). Between artifacts and texts. Springer; 1 edition. pp.15. ISBN978-0-306-45556-8.
↑ Smith, Sir William (1854). A dictionary of Greek and Roman geography. Boston: Little Brown 1854. Complete two volume set. pp.853.
↑ Platner, Bunsen, Gerhard, Röstell, Urlichs, Niebuhr, Hoffmann, Ernest Zacharias, Christian Karl Josias, Eduard, Wilhelm, Ludwig von, Barthold Georg, Friedrich (January 1, 1832). Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. J. G. Cotta; Elibron Classics edition. ISBN978-0-543-99903-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Wiseman, Timothy Peter (January 1, 1992). Talking to Virgile. University of Exeter Press; 1 edition. pp.134. ISBN978-0-85989-375-6.
Botsford, George (2005). The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic. City: Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN978-1-4021-3683-2. (originally published in 1909)
Collins-Clinton, Jacquelyn (1997). A Late Antique Shrine of Liber Pater at Cosa. City: Brill Academic Pub. ISBN978-90-04-05232-1.
Cornell, Tim (1995). The Beginnings of Rome. New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-01596-7.
Hubbard, Thomas (2003). Homosexuality in Greece and Rome. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-23430-7.
MacKendrick, Paul (1983). The Mute Stones Speak. New York: Norton. ISBN978-0-393-30119-9. (first ed. 1960; second edition issued to claim copyright)
Morstein-Marx, Robert (2004). Mass Oratory and Political Power in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-82327-2.
Rosenstein, Nathan (2006). A Companion to the Roman Republic. City: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN978-1-4051-0217-9.
Scott-Kilvert, Ian (1981). Makers of Rome. Harmondsworth Eng.: Penguin. ISBN978-0-14-044158-1.
Scullard, H. (2003). A History of the Roman World, 753-146 B.C. New York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-30504-4. (Since the 4th ed., 1980, issues have only been reprints)
Skinner, Quentin (2002). Visions of Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-58925-3.
Sumi, Geoffrey (2005). Ceremony and Power. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN978-0-472-11517-4.
Vasaly, Ann (1996). Representations. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-20178-1.
Other authors referenced
These books are out of print and have no ISBN. Their age means some information in the books or journals may have changed or newer theories advanced since the original publication. They are used in this article where information is either the earliest, the original, or the very first works printed on the subject, or where information is still pertinent today.
Brown, E. Burton- (1905). Recent excavations in the Roman Forum. Scribner's.
O'Connor, Charles James (1909). The Graecostasis and its vicinity. University of Wisconsin.
Pais, Cosenzahor, Ettorie, Emilio (1906). Ancient legends of Roman history. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., LTD.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Platner, Bunsen, Gerhard, Röstell, Urlichs, Niebuhr, Hoffmann, Ernest Zacharias, Christian Karl Josias, Eduard, Wilhelm, Ludwig von, Barthold Georg, Friedrich (January 1, 1832). Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. . G. Cotta; Elibron Classics edition.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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