Food insecurity is an issue affecting many American college students. While hunger in the United States affects all age groups, food insecurity seems to be especially prevalent among students. Studies have found that students of color are disproportionately affected. Students can be especially vulnerable to hunger during their first year, as it may be the first time they've lived away from home. The rising cost of education is another driver of food insecurity among students. Experiencing a period of chronic hunger can impact a student's mental health, and can lead to lower academic performance. Measures taken to alleviate hunger among students includes the establishment of food pantries in several US universities.
Students, especially first year students, are "uniquely" vulnerable to food insecurity as they transition from a state of dependency (often being looked after by parents) to autonomy. Additionally, the costs involved with higher education have been rising, in some cases faster than peoples ability to pay. [1] [2] [3]
When entering college, many students are leaving their homes and managing their own finances for the very first time in their lives. [4] Depending on where they go to school, there may be limited access to affordable and nutritious food, such as in food deserts, making students particularly vulnerable to food insecurity. Students are often forced to choose between expensive textbooks and school materials and food, leaving many students hungry. Hunger can distract students from focusing, leading to decreased academic performance, longer time than usual to graduate, and higher rates of depression. [4] Furthermore, familial financial hardship, ever-rising costs of tuition and housing, and lack of sufficient financial aid –which can be attributed to recent major cuts in states’ budgets for public universities and lack of federal aid –have made food insecurity an increasingly common experience among college students. [5] [1] In fact, a study on hunger in US colleges done at the University of California took data from 2006 to 2016 showed that 40% of students experienced food insecurity. [5]
According to a study done by sociologist Katharine Broton at the University of Massachusetts Boston, 27% of students had skipped meals because of food insecurity and 6% did not eat for 1 to 2 days because of limitations such as being in a food desert. [6]
A study done by researcher Danielle Gallegods used the USDA Food Security Module (FFSM) on 810 students at the Metropolitan University in Brisbane, Australia. The findings revealed that one out of every four students experiences food insecurity, which is twice the previously reported rate for university students and five times that of the general population. Factors contributing to food insecurity included low income, reliance on government aid, and housing accommodations. Students from food- insecure households were twice as likely to rate their overall health as fair or poor and three times as likely to have to postpone their studies due to financial constraints. Additionally, at least 80% of these students reported that their academic performance was affected. [7]
According to a study done by researcher Jaapna Dhillion, L. Katrina Diaz Rosa, Kaitlyn J. Aldaz, and their peers at the University of California, student’s perceptions of available food in the area caused them to have a higher risk of malnutrition and bad eating habits. [8]
Historic injustices based on racial categories have led to students of color having the less resources as their peers. Government officials targeted low-income and multiethnic communities as locations of toxic waste facilities, further labeling the community as undesirable and making it harder for residents to obtain greater opportunities. Many of the students in community colleges that are food insecure have experienced racial inequality, lack of healthcare and social services, inadequate housing poverty and other economic barriers. All of the obstacles prevent students from going to a private institution that has more alternatives to combating food insecurity. The demographics of community colleges play a major role in the high percentages of students facing food scarcity. [9]
Food insecurity prevalence was found to be 43.5% in a systematic review of food insecurity among US students in higher education. [3] This prevalence of food insecurity is over twice as high as that reported in United States national households. [10] Data have been collected to estimate prevalence both nationally as well as at specific institutions (two and four year colleges). For example, an Oregon university reported that 59% of their college students experienced food insecurity. [10] where as in a correlational study conducted at the University of Hawaii at Manoa found that 21-24% of their undergraduate students were food-insecure or at risk of food insecurity. [11] Data from a large southwestern university show that 32% of college freshmen, who lived in residence halls, self-reported inconsistent access to food in the past month. [12] According to a 2011 survey of the City University of New York (CUNY) undergraduates, about two in five students reported being food insecure. [13]
A study done by professor of Public Health and author Nicholas Freudenberg examines the demographics of students who may be more likely to be affected by food insecurity. It's been found in a study conducted at the City University of New York that students of color are more likely to be affected by food insecurities. Researchers believe that growing rates of food insecurity in college students are due to an increasing population of low-income college students, higher tuition and insufficient financial assistance. [14] According to a correlational study examining the undergraduate student population from universities in Illinois, African American students were more likely to report being very-low food secure compared to other racial groups. [11] Similarly, the aforementioned study from the University of Hawaii at Manoa found that their undergraduate students, who identified as Hawaiians, Pacific Islanders, Filipinos, and mixed-race, were more likely to be at increased risk of food insecurity compared to Japanese students. In the City University of New York (CUNY), Black and Latino students were 1.5 times more likely to experience food insecurity than White and Asian students. [13] Being a first generation student is another demographic that has been related to increased risk of food insecurity. [15] Other demographics studied at the University of Alabama that have been found to increase risk of food insecurity in college students include receiving financial aid, being financially independent, and being employed. [16] Researchers have speculated that students who live at home with their family are less likely to be food insecure, due to spending less on housing expenditures. [11]
A study done by policy studies professor and president of California State University, Sacramento, J. Luke Wood, found that for White and Asian students, having a low income (defined as $30,000 or less) was a notable factor associated with food insecurity, moreover, white students within this income bracket had an 82% higher likelihood of experiencing food insecurity and Asian students had a 158% higher likelihood. Contrastingly, income was not found to be a big indicator of food insecurity in Black, Latino and multiethnic students. The study additionally concluded that community colleges were far more likely to have a higher percentage of students experiencing food insecurity. Community colleges have a higher percentage of low-income students and students of color. [17]
There have been multiple studies regarding the effects that University food deserts have on students. A study conducted by researchers Jaapna Dhillion, L. Katrina Diaz Rios, Kaitlyn J. Aldaz, and their peers, looked into the perception of first-year minority students attending a school in a food desert at the University of California. The aim of the study was to see how the eating habits of the students were affected by their understanding of healthy food access. They found that students expressed they had trouble with the adequacy, meaning variety and quality, acceptability with their familiarity and preferences, affordability and accessibility. The study shows that students were unable to have access to healthy, affordable meals, leaving them with limited options. [8]
Another study was conducted at the University of Alabama by sociologist and author Katharine Broton discusses full time returning students and their food security. 14% of students surveyed expressed that they had low or very low food security and an additional 20% had marginal food security. The scale that was identified for the specific study showed that marginal food security included anxiety over food sufficiency and shortage of food, low food security had reports of reduced quality, variety, or desirability of diet, and very low food security which showed “reports of multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake”. [6]
College students struggling with access to food are more likely to experience issues with mental health. According to a correlational study examining college freshmen living in residence halls from a large southwestern university, students who were food-insecure, were more likely to self-report higher levels of depression and anxiety, compared to food-secure students. [18] When there isn’t enough food in the body for an extended period amount of time, the student would become fatigued and could experience anxiety, interfering with their concentration in class. [19] It could also lead to lower brain function and can cause emotional distress. [19] When a student is food-insecure, they struggle to have enough money to buy food, leading them to have to settle with unhealthy and improper meals because it’s cheaper. But these meals would probably be highly processed foods which would not only make them physically sick after being consumed for a prolonged amount of time but affect them mentally too.
When a student is unable to focus or has to worry about when their next meal will be or if they have enough money to last for the rest of the week, their academic performance will decline. Food insecurity increases the odds of being in the lower 10% GPA and lower odds of being in the upper 10% GPA. [20] According to a 2018 study on young adults attending an Appalachian University, the GPA of a food-secure student would be on average of 3.51, while a food-insecure student would be 3.33. [21] This could be because the student who has the average lower GPA must spend money on other items or rent instead of buying food and it affects them mentally and physically. The food-insecure students might have to work multiple part-time jobs and not have time to study, unlike the students who are food-secure and have a support system. Additionally, nutrition would affect a student’s thinking skills, behavior, and health. Inadequate nutrients will infer with the student’s learning process, and they will be unable to concentrate, which will affect their academic performance. [19] On top of the direct impacts of malnutrition and associated illness on learning there are numerous indirect effects as well. A study was conducted by professor Rita Bakan to look at the direct effects malnutrition has on learning and lots of side effects were found. The study was done on rats and showed that food restriction resulted in an interference with cell division and cellular growth patterns and they are left with a deficit in the number of cells in all organs. It’s frequently noted that malnourished individuals tend to display apathy, irritability, and have difficulty paying attention. Despite the study was conducted on rats, the same result would occur in humans. [22]
Colleges have taken steps to address the issue of food insecurity on their campuses –such as food pantries and Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) application assistance –though commentators have suggested more needs to be done. [5] [23] [2] The Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) policies excludes many college students from receiving benefits. [14] SNAP federal policies disproportionately impacts young people and people of color. The Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program (SNAP) policies excludes many college students from receiving benefits. This is because when SNAP was first introduced, college students were not the main focus of the program as they were typically from white, middle-class families, under the care of their parents and were young high school graduates without dependents to provide for. [24] [25] To prevent the system and the benefits from being abused, students were excluded from enrolling in SNAP.
A study done by research scientist Rachel Ross at the University of Washington revealed that the student’s lack of use of the SNAP program stem from a few reasons; uncertainty regarding SNAP eligibility criteria, dissatisfaction with the administrative complexities of applying for Snap assistance, fear regarding immigration status, the perception that their level of need does not meet the requirements and embarrassment from seeking aid and support. [26] The perceptions of students may be misinformed, but colleges have started to combat this; at Cal State-East Bay, work-study students in the library have received training to assist peers in signing up for SNAP and other food aid that might be available. [27]
A study conducted by researcher Quin Moore at Pacific University discovered that overall, the students who utilized SNAP’s benefits noticed improvements in their diets. Students in the study expressed that with SNAP they have gained more energy and possess the ability to perform better academically. [28]
Researchers have suggested that college campuses examine available and accessible food-related resources to help alleviate students’ food insecurity. [16] [15] In 2012, the College and University Food Bank Alliance (CUFBA) identified over 70 campuses where food pantries had been implemented or were under development. [29]
Within the younger generations we have seen much grassroots organizing, such as at UC Berkeley's student-run food pantry, established as a non-profit in 2014. [30] This pantry works with the Alameda Food Bank, with UC Berkeley's student farms, with local donations and some purchases to provide a range of nutritious food for students and university staff. The pantry also offers Calfresh application assistance, emergency housing, a basic needs emergency fund, and case management. This thriving free grocery store supports many on campus and teaches young volunteers and interns the value of community resource pooling and offers experience too students in grassroots community leadership. Foods such as cereal, rice, pasta, fruits, vegetables, peanut butter, oils, eggs, milk, soymilk, almond milk, and bread are provided. Furthermore, efforts to meet all culture’s dietary needs have been made. Foods such as tofu and canned bamboo shoots ensure that the food pantry meets the entire community's needs as best as it can as there is a large Asian community that comes through. While the food pantry aims at direct discourse with those in need over what types of food and of what quantity is needed, it understands that clients are not always wanting to have direct conversations. A new app system was created by students in which, upon exiting the food pantry, the items in one’s cart are scanned and entered into the app’s system in order for inventory to be taken. Through survey methods such as this the food pantry is able to assess the direct needs of its participants. But many students are passionate about the conversations that enable the food pantry to best benefit the community, and so the space is created with an overwhelming sense of welcome and respect with a board where students can write on post its for what produce or changes they wish to see in the pantry. The relief that the food pantry offers helps many people make it from one paycheck to another when their funds aren’t enough to cover the board of their needs. The issue with providing direct resource aid is that it creates a band-aid effect. The relief only lasts a certain amount of time until the food has run out. Food pantries specifically engage with social power, as the focus is to work within the community with fellow volunteers to provide for the rest of that very same community. [31] Action that promotes human rights, the right to nutrition.
While food pantries can provide urgent, short-term resources, they are not a sustainable, long-term solution for students. College food pantries are usually managed by volunteers and have limited budgets and resources; as a result, they do not always have nutritious food available. [5] Furthermore, although many students are aware of these campus pantries, some may be reluctant to actually use this resource because of the stigma attached to them. [1] [32] A studied showed that on campuses with food pantries, on average, only about half of the student population know of the pantry and only about one fourth of food-insecure students use the pantry. [1]
Community based assistance programs, like food pantries, can cater to a large number of students with minimal effort. With the ability to be operated by a group of students, faculty, and staff volunteers, they can obtain materials and aid from a multitude of organizations in the community and within the school. [33]
Cal State-East Bay collaborates with community organizations to address food insecurity on campus. They receive food and supplies from local food banks to stock their pantry, they run Cooking Matters, an organization that offers guidance on preparing affordable and nutritious meals, and they have CalFresh, an initiative that provides training to students enrolling in SNAP. Additionally, Swipe Out Hunger allows students to donate unused meal swipes for peers who struggle with food scarcity. [27]
Continuous or weekly food drives aid in combating food insecurity on college campuses. [34] Donations from local churches, organizations and farms provide nutritious food in an accessible manner. Food banks and drives address food insecurity, however a study on food banks done by the Journal of Community Health shows they may not always provide a sufficient supply of nutrient-rich foods. The study also found that they improve overall food security when the correct resources are provided, they have access to perishable food groups, and they effectively address the specific needs of the community. [35]
A study done by anthropologist Nicole D Peterson at the University of North Carolina looked into the barriers of food security on college campuses. 60% of the students surveyed were food insecure to some degree and looked for alternatives on campus, such as the local churches’ food drives. Food drives were appealing because financial limitations were found to be one of the main aspects contributing to food insecurity on campus so students looked for alternatives free of cost. [36]
Community and college-based farming initiatives work to link universities with nearby agricultural production and enhancing meal quality and nutrition. Healthy and fresh foods are collected to provide students and faculty with convenient and affordable meal options in dining halls, restaurants, events and any other food provider on campus. Some programs have classes and lessons in nutrition and eating a balanced diet available for those who are interested. Journalist Diane Harris explains that “The goal of these set of FTI {farm-to-institution} activities is to provide a tangible connection between food and its production and, in turn, highlight the freshness and quality of local food as a means of stimulating consumption of healthy foods, including fruits and vegetables.” [37] Students are given the opportunity to work on these farming initiatives and the food is then available to those who may need it on campus through food pantries, farmers markets, and dining halls. [38]
The Rutgers New-Brunswick campus which has the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and Rutgers Cooperative Extension hosts several farming operations, including the Rutgers Gardens Student Farm. Starting in 2019, the farm initiated a practice of donating a third of its harvest to the local pantry, which is free for students, and it ended up equating to more than $12,000 worth of fresh produce delivered weekly and has helped over 800 food insecure students. [38]
Lafayette College’s LaFarm Community Garden and Working Farm aims to be a place centered around education, cultivation and farming, exploration and fostering a sense of community, according to a study done by Drew Beyer in a STARTS assessment of Lafayette College. They supply the dining halls and market with healthy fruits and vegetables, employing eco-friendly and local methods. Students at Lafayette College have the option to work on LaFarm making money to combat food insecurity as well. [39]
In politics, humanitarian aid, and the social sciences, hunger is defined as a condition in which a person does not have the physical or financial capability to eat sufficient food to meet basic nutritional needs for a sustained period. In the field of hunger relief, the term hunger is used in a sense that goes beyond the common desire for food that all humans experience, also known as an appetite. The most extreme form of hunger, when malnutrition is widespread, and when people have started dying of starvation through lack of access to sufficient, nutritious food, leads to a declaration of famine.
Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender or religion is another element of food security. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food-secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Food security includes resilience to future disruption of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars. Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.
Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is "a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients" which adversely affects the body's tissues and form. Malnutrition is not receiving the correct amount of nutrition.
In the United States, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, is a federal government program that provides food-purchasing assistance for low- and no-income people to help them maintain adequate nutrition and health. It is a federal aid program administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) under the Food and Nutrition Service (FNS), though benefits are distributed by specific departments of U.S. states.
The basic needs approach is one of the major approaches to the measurement of absolute poverty in developing countries globally. It works to define the absolute minimum resources necessary for long-term physical well-being, usually in terms of consumption goods. The poverty line is then defined as the amount of income required to satisfy the needs of the people. The "basic needs" approach was introduced by the International Labour Organization's World Employment Conference in 1976. "Perhaps the high point of the WEP was the World Employment Conference of 1976, which proposed the satisfaction of basic human needs as the overriding objective of national and international development policy. The basic needs approach to development was endorsed by governments and workers' and employers' organizations from all over the world. It influenced the programmes and policies of major multilateral and bilateral development agencies, and was the precursor to the human development approach."
Meals on Wheels is a program that delivers meals to individuals at home who are unable to purchase or prepare their own meals. The name is often used generically to refer to home-delivered meals programs, not all of which are actually named "Meals on Wheels". Many of the housebound recipients are the elderly, and many of the volunteers are also elderly but able-bodied and able to drive automobiles.
The Arkansas Foodbank is a non-profit food bank located in Little Rock, Arkansas. The Arkansas Foodbank distributed more than 20.9 million pounds of food and grocery products to its member agencies for Arkansans in need in 2013, according to chief executive officer, Rhonda Sanders.
Food policy is the area of public policy concerning how food is produced, processed, distributed, purchased, or provided. Food policies are designed to influence the operation of the food and agriculture system balanced with ensuring human health needs. This often includes decision-making around production and processing techniques, marketing, availability, utilization, and consumption of food, in the interest of meeting or furthering social objectives. Food policy can be promulgated on any level, from local to global, and by a government agency, business, or organization. Food policymakers engage in activities such as regulation of food-related industries, establishing eligibility standards for food assistance programs for the poor, ensuring safety of the food supply, food labeling, and even the qualifications of a product to be considered organic.
Food studies is the critical examination of food and its contexts within science, art, history, society, and other fields. It is distinctive from other food-related areas of study such as nutrition, agriculture, gastronomy, and culinary arts in that it tends to look beyond the consumption, production, and aesthetic appreciation of food and tries to illuminate food as it relates to a vast number of academic fields. It is thus a field that involves and attracts philosophers, historians, scientists, literary scholars, sociologists, art historians, anthropologists, and others.
Despite India's 50% increase in GDP since 2013, more than one third of the world's malnourished children live in India. Among these, half of the children under three years old are underweight.
The Greater Chicago Food Depository (GCFD) is a nonprofit organization that fights hunger throughout Cook County, Illinois. The GCFD distributes donated and purchased food through a network of 700 food pantries, soup kitchens, shelters and community programs, serving more than 800,000 adults and children every year. In fiscal year 2016, the GCFD distributed more than 70 million pounds of nonperishable food, produce, dairy products, and meat - the equivalent of more than 160,000 meals every day. Of the $96,883,955 spent in 2016, over 90% went to direct food distribution programs.
Nutrition education is a combination of learning experiences designed to teach individuals or groups about the principles of a balanced diet, the importance of various nutrients, how to make healthy food choices, and how both dietary and exercise habits can affect overall well-being. It includes a combination of educational strategies, accompanied by environmental supports, designed to facilitate voluntary adoption of food choices and other nutrition-related behaviors conducive to well-being. Nutrition education is delivered through multiple venues and involves activities at the individual, community, and policy levels. Nutrition Education also critically looks at issues such as food security, food literacy, and food sustainability.
There were 795 million undernourished people in the world in 2014, a decrease of 216 million since 1990, despite the fact that the world already produces enough food to feed everyone—7 billion people—and could feed more than that—12 billion people.
Hunger in the United States of America affects millions of Americans, including some who are middle class, or who are in households where all adults are in work. The United States produces far more food than it needs for domestic consumption—hunger within the U.S. is caused by some Americans having insufficient money to buy food for themselves or their families. Additional causes of hunger and food insecurity include neighborhood deprivation and agricultural policy. Hunger is addressed by a mix of public and private food aid provision. Public interventions include changes to agricultural policy, the construction of supermarkets in underserved neighborhoods, investment in transportation infrastructure, and the development of community gardens. Private aid is provided by food pantries, soup kitchens, food banks, and food rescue organizations.
School meals are provided free of charge, or at a government-subsidized price, to United States students from low-income families. These free or subsidized meals have the potential to increase household food security, which can improve children's health and expand their educational opportunities. A study of a free school meal program in the United States found that providing free meals to elementary and middle school children in areas characterized by high food insecurity led to increased school discipline among the students.
CalFresh is the California implementation of the federal Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as the Food Stamp program, which provides financial assistance for purchasing food to low-income California residents.
Obesity and the environment aims to look at the different environmental factors that researchers worldwide have determined cause and perpetuate obesity. Obesity is a condition in which a person's weight is higher than what is considered healthy for their height, and is the leading cause of preventable death worldwide. Obesity can result from several factors such as poor nutritional choices, overeating, genetics, culture, and metabolism. Many diseases and health complications are associated with obesity. Worldwide, the rates of obesity have nearly tripled since 1975, leading health professionals to label the condition as a modern epidemic in most parts of the world. Current worldwide population estimates of obese adults are near 13%; overweight adults total approximately 39%.
Food security in the Central Valley, California, United states is a widespread issue. The Central Valley is where most of the state's and the nation's agriculture is produced. Despite this, many people living and working in the valley's agriculture industry are food insecure in some way, with contributing factors including lack of food sources, lack of healthy food choices, or income barriers. About a third of many Central Valley counties' populations were documented as food insecure in 2009. Due to the lack of healthy food choices, high rates of obesity have also been found in the Central Valley.
The Food Justice Movement is a grassroots initiative which emerged in response to food insecurity and economic pressures that prevent access to healthy, nutritious, and culturally appropriate foods. The food justice movement moves beyond increasing food availability and works to address the root cause of unequal access to adequate nutrition. Like other Environmental Justice initiatives, the Food Justice Movement advocates for rights-based solutions that identify the underlying human rights that allow individuals to achieve adequate food security and nutrition. This differs from policy-based solutions that focus on food availability and affordability by increasing food production or lowering the cost of food.
This is a list of food desert issues and solutions by country.
