Language learning strategies

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Language learning strategies is a term referring to the actions that are consciously deployed by language learners to help them learn or use a language more effectively. [1] [2] They have also been defined as "thoughts and actions, consciously chosen and operationalized by language learners, to assist them in carrying out a multiplicity of tasks from the very outset of learning to the most advanced levels of target language performance". [3] Some learning strategies include methods that facilitate lowering the learner's language anxiety, therefore improving their confidence in using the language. [4] Consistently it has been proven that strategies, those mentioned in the following article and others, assist learners to become more proficient. [5] The term language learner strategies, which incorporates strategies used for language learning and language use, is sometimes used, although the line between the two is ill-defined as moments of second language use can also provide opportunities for learning. [1]

Contents

History

Language learning strategies were first introduced to the second language literature in 1975, with research on the good language learner. [6] At the time it was thought that a better understanding of strategies deployed by successful learners could help inform teachers and students alike of how to teach and learn languages more effectively. Initial studies aimed to document the strategies of good language learners. In the 80s the emphasis moved to classification of language learning strategies. Strategies were first classified according to whether they were direct or indirect, and later they were strategies divided into cognitive, metacognitive or affective/social categories. [7]

In 1990, Rebecca Oxford published her landmark book Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know which included the "Strategy Inventory for Language Learning" or "SILL", a questionnaire [8] which was used in a great deal of research in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Controversy over basic issues such as definition grew stronger in the late 1990s and early 2000s, however, with some researchers [9] giving up trying to define the concept in favour of listing essential characteristics. Others [10] abandoned the strategy term in favour of "self regulation".

Classification of language learning strategies

O'Malley and Chamot classification

In 1990, O'Malley and Chamot [7] developed a classification of three types of language learning strategies:

This model was based on cognitive theory, which was commended, but it was also criticized for the ad hoc nature of its third category. [10]

Oxford taxonomy

Also in 1990, Rebecca Oxford developed a taxonomy for categorizing strategies under six headings: [8]

In later years this classification system was criticized for its problems in separating mnemonic strategies from cognitive strategies, when one is a sub-category of the other, [10] and the inclusion of compensatory strategies, which are connected to how a learner uses the language, rather than learns it.

Recent research

More recent research has examined language learning strategies in more context-specific situations, [12] rather than catch-all categories. That is, when learners study academic writing, for example, they are likely to deploy a different set of strategies than if they were to study daily conversation. The terms cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies remain common in strategy research, but others related to managing a learner's own affective state or social environment have been examined under the umbrella term self-regulation. [1]

Controversies

First, although originally promoted as a means of helping students to achieve success in language learning, a synthesis of historical research on language learning strategies has produced conflicting results on the relationship between strategies and language learning success. [13] In fact, much of the research that emerged in the 1990s included numerous conflicting studies based on use of the SILL as a research instrument, of which very few met rigorous research criteria. [12]

A second problem associated with researching language learning strategies is the definitional fuzziness of major concepts in the field. [1] Researchers in the field, such as Ernesto Macaro, argue there is a lack of consensus of:

Due to the definitional fuzziness of language learning strategies, critics have argued the whole field should be replaced with the psychological concept of self-regulation. [10] However, language learning strategy researchers have argued that replacing the field would be a matter of 'throwing the baby out with the bathwater' [14] in that it throws away 30 years of research because of definitional issues. It has also been argued that self-regulation and language learning strategies are measuring different parts of the learning process, and thus can be used in tandem to observe a more accurate picture of how learners learn a second language. [12]

Interest in the potential of strategies to promote learning remains strong, however, as evidenced from recent books on the topic, [3] [15] and a number of special issues of academic journals on the topic. [16] [17] A particularly important question for educators is whether learners can benefit from strategy instruction, both in terms of improved linguistic outcomes and improved self-efficacy for learning. For example, in a study within the context of England, Graham and Macaro (2008) [18] found improved listening skills and improved self-efficacy for listening among learners of French who had received instruction in listening strategies. Another important question is also the extent to which teachers have knowledge and understanding of how to incorporate language learning strategies into their teaching, with research indicating that this is an area for development . [19]

Language learning strategies have naturally strong links to the fields of self-regulation, self-directed learning, and learner autonomy as they share core notions of independent learning, learner-centredness, and the necessity for learners to exercise responsibility for their own learning. [12] These learning strategies also assist learners in areas outside of language learning, such as video gaming, strategy categorizing, and critical thinking. [20]

Related Research Articles

A second language (L2) is a language spoken in addition to one's first language (L1). A second language may be a neighbouring language, another language of the speaker's home country, or a foreign language. A speaker's dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is most comfortable with, is not necessarily the speaker's first language. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition. This can happen when young children start school or move to a new language environment.

Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning. This learning process promotes a deeper level of learning than many other common teaching strategies.

Second-language acquisition (SLA), sometimes called second-language learning—otherwise referred to as L2acquisition, is the process by which people learn a second language. Second-language acquisition is also the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. The field of second-language acquisition is regarded by some but not everybody as a sub-discipline of applied linguistics but also receives research attention from a variety of other disciplines, such as psychology and education.

Metacognition is an awareness of one's thought processes and an understanding of the patterns behind them. The term comes from the root word meta, meaning "beyond", or "on top of". Metacognition can take many forms, such as reflecting on one's ways of thinking and knowing when and how to use particular strategies for problem-solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: (1) knowledge about cognition and (2) regulation of cognition. A metacognitive model differs from other scientific models in that the creator of the model is per definition also enclosed within it. Scientific models are often prone to distancing the observer from the object or field of study whereas a metacognitive model in general tries to include the observer in the model.

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is one of the domains of self-regulation, and is aligned most closely with educational aims. Broadly speaking, it refers to learning that is guided by metacognition, strategic action, and motivation to learn. A self-regulated learner "monitors, directs, and regulates actions toward goals of information acquisition, expanding expertise, and self-improvement”. In particular, self-regulated learners are cognizant of their academic strengths and weaknesses, and they have a repertoire of strategies they appropriately apply to tackle the day-to-day challenges of academic tasks. These learners hold incremental beliefs about intelligence and attribute their successes or failures to factors within their control.

Sequential bilingualism occurs when a person becomes bilingual by first learning one language and then another. The process is contrasted with simultaneous bilingualism, in which both languages are learned at the same time.

The desire to learn is often related to the concept of ‘motivation’. Motivation is the most used concept for explaining the failure or success of a language learner. Second language (L2) refers to a language an individual learns that is not his/her mother tongue, but is of use in the area of the individual. It is not the same as a foreign language, which is a language learned that is not generally spoken in the individual's area. In research on motivation, it is considered to be an internal process that gives behavior energy, direction and persistence in research . Learning a new language takes time and dedication. Once one does, being fluent in a second language offers numerous benefits and opportunities. Learning a second language is exciting and beneficial at all ages. It offers practical, intellectual and many aspirational benefits. In learning a language, there can be one or more goals – such as mastery of the language or communicative competence – that vary from person to person. There are a number of language learner motivation models that were developed and postulated in fields such as linguistics and sociolinguistics, with relations to second-language acquisition in a classroom setting. The different perspectives on L2 motivation can be divided into three distinct phases: the social psychological period, the cognitive-situated period and the process-oriented period.

Social cognitive theory (SCT), used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. This theory was advanced by Albert Bandura as an extension of his social learning theory. The theory states that when people observe a model performing a behavior and the consequences of that behavior, they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors. Observing a model can also prompt the viewer to engage in behavior they already learned. Depending on whether people are rewarded or punished for their behavior and the outcome of the behavior, the observer may choose to replicate behavior modeled. Media provides models for a vast array of people in many different environmental settings.

Foreign language anxiety, also known as xenoglossophobia, is the feeling of unease, worry, nervousness and apprehension experienced in learning or using a second or foreign language. The feelings may stem from any second language context whether it is associated with the productive skills of speaking and writing or the receptive skills of reading and listening.

Goal orientation, or achievement orientation, is an "individual disposition towards developing or validating one's ability in achievement settings". In general, an individual can be said to be mastery or performance oriented, based on whether one's goal is to develop one's ability or to demonstrate one's ability, respectively. A mastery orientation is also sometimes referred to as a learning orientation.

The order of acquisition is a concept in language acquisition describing the specific order in which all language learners acquire the grammatical features of their first language. This concept is based on the observation that all children acquire their first language in a fixed, universal order, regardless of the specific grammatical structure of the language they learn. Linguistic research has largely confirmed that this phenomenon is true for first-language learners; order of acquisition for second-language learners is much less consistent. It is not clear why the order differs for second-language learners, though current research suggests this variability may stem from first-language interference or general cognitive interference from nonlinguistic mental faculties.

Individual variation in second-language acquisition is the study of why some people learn a second language better than others. Unlike children who acquire a language, adults learning a second language rarely reach the same level of competence as native speakers of that language. Some may stop studying a language before they have fully internalized it, and others may stop improving despite living in a foreign country for many years. It also appears that children are more likely than adults to reach native-like competence in a second language. There have been many studies that have attempted to explain these phenomena.

The good language learner (GLL) studies are a group of academic studies in the area of second language acquisition that deal with the strategies that good language learners exhibit. The rationale for the studies was that there is more benefit from studying the habits of successful language learners than there is from studying learners who fossilize at an early stage or stop studying altogether. It was thought that if the strategies of successful learners could be found, then that knowledge could help learners who were not getting such good results.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zoltán Dörnyei</span> Hungarian-born British linguist (1960–2022)

Zoltán Dörnyei was a Hungarian-born British linguist. He was a professor of psycholinguistics at the University of Nottingham in the United Kingdom. He was known for his work on second language acquisition and the psychology of the language learner, in particular on motivation in second language learning, having published numerous books and papers on these topics.

In the course of learning a second language, learners will frequently encounter communication problems caused by a lack of linguistic resources. Communication strategies are strategies that learners use to overcome these problems in order to convey their intended meaning. Strategies used may include paraphrasing, substitution, coining new words, switching to the first language, and asking for clarification. These strategies, with the exception of switching languages, are also used by native speakers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pedagogical agent</span>

A pedagogical agent is a concept borrowed from computer science and artificial intelligence and applied to education, usually as part of an intelligent tutoring system (ITS). It is a simulated human-like interface between the learner and the content, in an educational environment. A pedagogical agent is designed to model the type of interactions between a student and another person. Mabanza and de Wet define it as "a character enacted by a computer that interacts with the user in a socially engaging manner". A pedagogical agent can be assigned different roles in the learning environment, such as tutor or co-learner, depending on the desired purpose of the agent. "A tutor agent plays the role of a teacher, while a co-learner agent plays the role of a learning companion".

Cynthia Joan White is a New Zealand applied linguistics academic.

Complex Dynamic Systems Theory in the field of linguistics is a perspective and approach to the study of second, third and additional language acquisition. The general term Complex Dynamic Systems Theory was recommended by Kees de Bot to refer to both Complexity theory and Dynamic systems theory.

Metaliteracy is the ability to evaluate information for its bias, reliability, and credibility and apply them in the context of production and sharing of knowledge. It is especially useful in the context of the internet and social media. A formal concept of it was developed as an expanded information literacy framework by State University of New York academics Thomas P. Mackey and Trudi E. Jacobson. It has been used to prepare people to be informed consumers and responsible producers of information in a variety of social communities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kata Csizér</span> Hungarian linguist

Kata Csizér is a Hungarian linguist. She is currently a professor at the School of English and American Studies of the Faculty of Humanities of the Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary. Her research focuses on applied linguistics with a special focus on motivation in second-language learning and teaching students with special needs.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Rose, Heath (2015). "Researching language learning strategies". In Paltridge, Brian; Phakiti, Aek (eds.). Research methods in applied linguistics. Bloomsbury.
  2. ↑ Shatz, I (2014). "Parameters for Assessing the Effectiveness of Language Learning Strategies" (PDF). Journal of Language and Cultural Education. 2 (3): 96–103.
  3. 1 2 Cohen, Andrew (2011). Strategies in learning and using a second language (2nd ed.). Longman.
  4. ↑ Szyszka, Magdalena (December 30, 2016). A Review of Selected Empirical Research on Pronunciation Learning Strategies and Language Anxiety. Cham Springer. pp. 87–121. ISBN   978-3-319-50642-5.
  5. ↑ Yilmaz, Cevdet (2010). "The relationship between language learning strategies, gender, proficiency and self-efficacy beliefs: a study of ELT learners in Turkey". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2 (2): 682–687. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.084 .
  6. ↑ Rubin, Joan (1975). "What the good language learner can teach us". TESOL Quarterly. 9 (1): 41–51. doi:10.2307/3586011. JSTOR   3586011.
  7. 1 2 O'Malley, J; Chamot, A (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
  8. 1 2 Oxford, Rebecca (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. NY: Newbury House Publisher.
  9. 1 2 Macaro, Ernesto (2006). "Strategies for language learning and for language use: Revising the theoretical framework". Modern Language Journal. 90 (3): 320–337. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2006.00425.x.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Dornyei, Zoltan (2005). The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition (PDF). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  11. 1 2 Cancino, Marco (28 July 2022). "Exploring the relationship between L2 language proficiency, language learning strategies, and self-efficacy: evidence from chilean classrooms". Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas. 17: 1–9. doi:10.4995/rlyla.2022.16122. hdl: 10251/185222 . S2CID   251164074.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Rose, Heath (2012). "Language learning strategy research: Where do we go from here?" (PDF). Studies in Self Access Learning. 3 (2): 137–148. doi: 10.37237/030202 .
  13. ↑ Macaro, Ernesto (2010). "The relationship between strategic behaviour and language learning success". In Macaro, Ernesto (ed.). Continuum Companion to Second Language Acquisition, Continuum. London: Continuum.
  14. ↑ Rose, Heath (2012). "Reconceptualizing strategic learning in the face of self-regulation: Throwing language learning strategies out with the bathwater". Applied Linguistics. 33 (1): 92–98. doi:10.1093/applin/amr045.
  15. ↑ Oxford, Rebecca (2011). Teaching and Researching Language Learning Strategies. Harlow: Pearson Education.
  16. ↑ "Special issue on Strategies and Self-Regulation in Self-Access Learning" (PDF). Studies in Self Access Learning. 3 (4). 2012.
  17. ↑ Oxford, Rebecca; Griffiths, Carol (eds.). "Language Learning Strategy Research in the Twenty-First Century: Insights and Innovations". System. 43.
  18. ↑ Graham, Suzanne; Macaro, E (2008). "Strategy instruction in listening for lower-intermediate learners of French" (PDF). Language Learning. 58 (4): 747–783. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2008.00478.x.
  19. ↑ Graham, Suzanne; Santos, D (2015). Strategies for second language listening:Current scenarios and improved pedagogy. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
  20. ↑ Gavriilidou, Zoe (January 6, 2021). Situating Language Learning Strategy Use: Present Issues and Future Trends. Multilingual Matters. pp. 181–199. ISBN   9781788926713.

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