List of space programs of the United States

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The United States has developed many space programs since the beginning of the spaceflight era in the mid-20th century. The government runs space programs by three primary agencies: NASA for civil space; the United States Space Force for military space; and the National Reconnaissance Office for intelligence space. These entities have invested significant resources to advance technological approaches to meet objectives. In the late 1980s, commercial interests emerged in the space industry and have expanded dramatically, especially within the last 10 to 15 years.

Contents

NASA delivers the most visible elements of the U.S. space program. From crewed space exploration and the Apollo 11 landing on the Moon, to the Space Shuttle, International Space Station, Voyager, the Mars rovers, numerous space telescopes, and the Artemis program, NASA delivers on the civil space exploration mandate. NASA also cooperates with other U.S. civil agencies such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to deliver space assets supporting the weather and civil remote sensing mandates of those organizations. In 2022, NASA's annual budget was approximately $24 billion.

The Department of Defense delivers the military space programs. In 2019, the U.S. Space Force started as the primary DoD agent for delivery of military space capability. [1] Systems such as the Global Positioning System, which is ubiquitous to users worldwide, was developed and is maintained by the DoD. [2] Missile warning, defense weather, military satellite communications, and space domain awareness also acquire significant annual investment. In 2023, the annual DoD budget request focused on space is $24.5 billion dollars. [3]

The Intelligence Community, through entities that include the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), invests significant resources in space. Surveillance and reconnaissance are the primary focuses of these entities.

Commercial space activity in the United States was facilitated by the passage of the Commercial Space Launch Act in October 1984. [4] [5] Commercial crewed program activity was spurred by the establishment of the $10 million Ansari X Prize in May 1996.

Definition of space flight

Space programs of the United States date to the start of the Space Age in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Programs involve both crewed systems and uncrewed satellites, probes and platforms to meet diverse program objectives.

From a definition perspective, the criteria for what constitutes spaceflight vary. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80 km) are awarded astronaut wings. [6] The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale defines spaceflight as any flight over 62 miles (100 km). [7] This article follows the US definition of spaceflight. Similarly, for uncrewed missions, systems are required to travel above the same altitude thresholds.

Government-led programs

The following summarizes the major space programs where the United States government plays a leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed government-led programs

ProgramPurposeTimelineOrganization(s)FlightsExemplar mission(s)Refs
X-15 program R&D1957–1968
13 X-15 Flight 91 [8] [9]
Project Mercury R&D1958–1963 NASA 11 Mercury-Atlas 6 [10] [11]
Project Gemini Exploration1961–1966 NASA 19 Gemini 4 [12]
Project Apollo Exploration1961–1972 NASA 14 Apollo 11 [13] [14]
Manned Orbiting Laboratory Space Operations1962–1969 US Air Force 1 Test Flight [15]
Space Shuttle program Space Transportation1972–2011 NASA 134
 [16] [17]
Skylab programSpace Operations1973–1974 NASA 4 Skylab 2 [18]
Spacelab programSpace Operations1973–199816 STS-50 [19]
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project Space Operations19751 APAS-75 Docking System [20]
International Space Station program Space Operations1984–present
25 years, 103 days in orbit [21] [22]
Constellation program Exploration2000s–2010 NASA 1 Ares I-X [23]
Journey to Mars program Exploration2010–2017 NASA 1 Exploration Flight Test-1 [24] [25] [26]
Lunar Gateway programExploration2017–present
0 [27]
Artemis Program Exploration2017–present
1 [28] [29] [30]

Uncrewed government-led programs

ProgramPurposeTimelineOrganization(s)FlightsExemplar mission(s)Refs
Project Vanguard R&D1956–1959 Naval Research Laboratory 3 Vanguard 1 [31]
Explorers Program Exploration1958–present
91 [32] [33]
Pioneer program Exploration1958–1992
8 [34]
KH-1 to KH-6 Corona Reconnaissance1959–1972142 Discoverer 1 [35]
Ranger program Exploration1961–1965 NASA 4 Ranger 7 [36] [37]
Strategic missile warning programsSurveillance1960–present US Space Force 39 [38] [39]
Mariner program Exploration1962–1973 NASA 7 Mariner 6 and 7 [40]
Centaur upper stage program Space Transportation1962–2003
91
 [41] [42]
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)Weather1962–present39 [43]
Lunar Orbiter program Exploration1963–1967 NASA 5 Lunar Orbiter 3 [44]
KH-7 Gambit Reconnaissance1963–196738 [45] [46] [47]
KH-8 Gambit 3 Reconnaissance1966–198454 [48] [49]
Earth Observing System Earth Science1966–present NASA 29 [50]
Defense Satellite Communications System Communications1966–present US Air Force 63 DSCS-III [51] [52] [53]
KH-9 Hexagon Reconnaissance1971–198419 [54]
Landsat program Earth Science1972–present NASA and USGS 9 Landsat 9 [55] [56]
NAVSTAR GPS Navigation1973–present US Air Force (1973–2019)
US Space Force (2019 onward)		77 GPS Block III [57] [58]
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)Weather1975–present18 [59]
Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS)Communications1983–present NASA 14 [60]
Strategic planetary missions Exploration1975–present NASA 8 [61] [62] [63]
Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES)Weather1978–present16 [64] [65]
Milstar Communications1985–present US Air Force 6 [66]
UHF Follow-On program Communications1988–present US Navy 11 [67]
Medium Launch Vehicle II (MLV-II)Space Transportation1988–2004 US Air Force 14 [68]
Discovery program Exploration1990–present NASA 12 [69]
Strategic astrophysics missions Astrophysics1991–present NASA 4 [70] [71]
Mars Exploration Program Exploration1993–present NASA 8 [72] [73]
NASA Heliophysics division programsHeliophysics1995–present NASA 63 [74]
Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle Space Transportation1998–present US Air Force 106
 [75] [76]
New Frontiers program Exploration2003–present NASA 3 [77]
X-37B program R&D2006–present
6 OTV-3 [78] [79]
AEHF Satellite Program Communications2010–present US Space Force 6 AEHF-1 [80] [81]
Wideband Global Satcom Program Communications2011–present US Space Force 10 WGS-4 [82]

Commercial space programs

The following summarizes the major space programs where private interests play the leadership role in managing program delivery.

Crewed commercial programs

ProgramPurposeTimelineOrganization(s)FlightsExemplar mission(s)Refs
Space Adventures Space tourism 1998–present7 [83] [84]
SpaceShipOne Space tourism 2003–2004 Scaled Composites 3 SpaceShipOne flight 16P [85] [86]
SpaceShipTwo Space tourism 2010–present Virgin Galactic 10 Virgin Galactic Unity 22

Galactic 02

[87] [88]
Blue Origin New Shepard Space tourism 2015–present Blue Origin 24 Blue Origin NS-18 [89] [90]
DearMoon lunar tourism Space tourism 2018–present0 [91] [92]
Axiom Space Space tourism 2020–present3 Axiom Mission 1

Axiom Mission 2

[93]
Polaris program Space tourism 2021–present1 Inspiration4 [94] [95]
Commercial Crew Program Space transportation2011–present7 [96] [97]
SpaceX Starship Space Transportation2012–present SpaceX 0 [98]
Orbital Reef Space StationSpace Operations2021–present Blue Origin 0 [99]

Uncrewed commercial programs

ProgramPurposeTimelineOrganization(s)FlightsExemplar mission(s)Refs
Commercial Launch Services (Atlas)Space Transportation
  • 1987–1995
  • 2006–present
  • 9 (1990–93)
  • 11 (1994–95)
 AC-69/Atlas I [100] [101]
Iridium Satellite communications1987–present Iridium Communications 170Iridium 77 [102]
Globalstar Satellite communications1991–presentGlobalstar84 [103]
Digital Globe Earth Imaging1992–present Maxar Technologies 8 WorldView-1 [104]
Orbcomm Satellite data messaging1992–present Orbcomm 62 [105]
International Launch Services (Atlas, Proton) [note 1] Space transportation1995–2006
100 [106] [107]
Sea Launch (Zenit)Space transportation1995–2014
36 [108]
DirecTV Satellite Television 1995–present DirecTV 19 DirecTV T10 satellite [109]
Dish Network Satellite Television 1996–presentDISH Network Corporation16 EchoStar X [110]
Sirius XM Radio Satellite Radio 1997–present
  • Sirius Satellite Radio (1998–2008)
  • XM Radio (1999–2008)
  • Sirius XM Radio (2008–present)
13 Sirius FM-5 [111]
SpaceX Launch ServicesSpace transportation2002–present SpaceX xx [112]
Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Space transportation2006–20133 [113]
United Launch Alliance Commercial Launch ServicesSpace Transportation2006–presentxx [114]
Commercial Resupply Services Space transportation
  • 2008–2020 (Phase 1)
  • 2016–present (Phase 2)
  • 29 (Phase 1)
  • 9 (Phase 2)
 [115]
Planetscope satellite constellationEarth imaging2010–present Planet Labs 487 List of Flock satellite types [116]
Rocket Lab (Electron) [note 2] Space Transportation2013–present Rocket Lab 41 List of Electron launches [117]
Starlink Satellite Internet Service2016–present SpaceX 5,330 [118]
Commercial Lunar Payload Services Space transportation2018–present1 Astrobotic Peregrine Lander [119]

See also

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ Lockheed Martin sold its interest in ILS to Russian entities in 2006 with ILS continuing as an international entity. Atlas commercial sales reverted to Lockheed Martin via the United Launch Alliance joint venture with Boeing.
  2. ↑ Rocketlab was founded in New Zealand but made the decision to re-domicile itself to the United States in 2013.

Related Research Articles

Human spaceflight programs have been conducted, started, or planned by multiple countries and companies. Until the 21st century, human spaceflight programs were sponsored exclusively by governments, through either the military or civilian space agencies. With the launch of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of human spaceflight programs – commercial human spaceflight – arrived. By the end of 2022, three countries and one private company (SpaceX) had successfully launched humans to Earth orbit, and two private companies had launched humans on a suborbital trajectory.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NASA</span> American space and aeronautics agency

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is an independent agency of the U.S. federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research. Established in 1958, it succeeded the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) to give the U.S. space development effort a distinctly civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in space science. It has since led most American space exploration, including Project Mercury, Project Gemini, the 1968–1972 Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station, and the Space Shuttle. It currently supports the International Space Station and oversees the development of the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System for the crewed lunar Artemis program, the Commercial Crew spacecraft, and the planned Lunar Gateway space station.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Development of the Commercial Crew Program</span> NASA space program partnership with space companies

Development of the Commercial Crew Program began in the second round of the Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program, which was rescoped from a technology development program for human spaceflight to a competitive development program that would produce the spacecraft to be used in the Commercial Crew Program to provide crew transportation services to and from the International Space Station (ISS). To implement the program NASA awarded a series of competitive fixed-price contracts to private vendors starting in 2011. Operational contracts to fly astronauts were awarded in September 2014 to SpaceX and Boeing, and NASA expected each company to complete development and achieve crew rating in 2017. Each company performed an uncrewed orbital test flight in 2019. SpaceX operational flights started in November 2020.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Space Shuttle retirement</span> End of NASAs Space Shuttle spacecraft system in 2011

The retirement of NASA's Space Shuttle fleet took place from March to July 2011. Discovery was the first of the three active Space Shuttles to be retired, completing its final mission on March 9, 2011; Endeavour did so on June 1. The final shuttle mission was completed with the landing of Atlantis on July 21, 2011, closing the 30-year Space Shuttle program.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanoracks</span> Private space hardware and services company

Nanoracks LLC is a private in-space services company which builds space hardware and in-space repurposing tools. The company also facilitates experiments and launches of CubeSats to Low Earth Orbit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis 2</span> Artemis programs second lunar flight

Artemis 2 is a scheduled mission of the NASA-led Artemis program. It will use the second launch of the Space Launch System (SLS) and include the first crewed mission of the Orion spacecraft. The mission is scheduled for no earlier than September 2025. Four astronauts will perform a flyby of the Moon and return to Earth, becoming the first crew to travel beyond low Earth orbit since Apollo 17 in 1972. Artemis 2 will be the first crewed launch from Launch Complex 39B of the Kennedy Space Center since STS-116 in 2006.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis 3</span> Third orbital flight of the Artemis program

Artemis 3 is planned to be the first crewed Moon landing mission of the Artemis program and the first crewed flight of the Starship HLS lander. Artemis 3 is planned to be the second crewed Artemis mission and the first American crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in December 1972. In December 2023, the Government Accountability Office reported that the mission is not likely to occur before 2027; as of January 2024, NASA officially expects Artemis 3 to launch no earlier than September 2026.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Firefly Alpha</span> Two-stage operational orbital rocket, about 1,070 kg to LEO

Firefly Alpha is a two-stage orbital expendable launch vehicle developed by the American company Firefly Aerospace to compete in the commercial small satellite launch market. Alpha is intended to provide launch options for both full vehicle and rideshare customers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lunar Gateway</span> Lunar orbital space station under development

The Lunar Gateway, or simply Gateway, is a space station which Artemis program participants plan to assemble in an orbit near the Moon. The Gateway is intended to serve as a communication hub, science laboratory, and habitation module for astronauts. It is a multinational collaborative project: participants include NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and the Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC). The Gateway is planned to be the first space station beyond low Earth orbit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2020s in spaceflight</span> Spaceflight-related events during the 2020s

This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the 2020s.

Axiom Space, Inc., also known as Axiom Space, is an American privately funded space infrastructure developer headquartered in Houston, Texas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artemis program</span> NASA-led lunar exploration program

The Artemis program is a Moon exploration program that is led by the United States' NASA and was formally established in 2017 via Space Policy Directive 1. The Artemis program is intended to reestablish a human presence on the Moon for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. The program's stated long-term goal is to establish a permanent base on the Moon to facilitate human missions to Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2026 in spaceflight</span> Spaceflight-related events during the year 2026

This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the year 2026.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2025 in spaceflight</span> Spaceflight-related events during the year 2025

This article documents expected notable spaceflight events during the year 2025.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Commercial Crew Program</span> NASA human spaceflight program for the International Space Station

The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides commercially operated crew transportation service to and from the International Space Station (ISS) under contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the expeditions of the International Space Station program. American space manufacturer SpaceX began providing service in 2020, using the Crew Dragon spacecraft, and NASA plans to add Boeing when its Boeing Starliner spacecraft becomes operational no earlier than 2025. NASA has contracted for six operational missions from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030.

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