Soil gas

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Soil gases (soil atmosphere [1] ) are the gases found in the air space between soil components. The spaces between the solid soil particles, if they do not contain water, are filled with air. The primary soil gases are nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen. [2] Oxygen is critical because it allows for respiration of both plant roots and soil organisms. Other natural soil gases include nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and ammonia. [3] Some environmental contaminants below ground produce gas which diffuses through the soil such as from landfill wastes, mining activities, and contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons which produce volatile organic compounds. [4]

Contents

Gases fill soil pores in the soil structure as water drains or is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption. The network of pores within the soil aerates, or ventilates, the soil. This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores. Not only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil, but both are often inversely related.

Composition

Composition of Air in Soil and Atmosphere [5]
GasSoilAtmosphere
Nitrogen79.2%78.0%
Oxygen20.6%20.9%
Carbon Dioxide0.25%0.04%

The composition of gases present in the soil's pores, referred to commonly as the soil atmosphere or atmosphere of the soil, is similar to that of the Earth's atmosphere. [5] Unlike the atmosphere, moreover, soil gas composition is less stagnant due to the various chemical and biological processes taking place in the soil. [5] The resulting changes in composition from these processes can be defined by their variation time (i.e. daily vs. seasonal). Despite this spatial- and temporal-dependent fluctuation, soil gases typically boast greater concentrations of carbon dioxide and water vapor in comparison to the atmosphere. [5] Furthermore, concentration of other gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, are relatively minor yet significant in determining greenhouse gas flux and anthropogenic impact on soils. [3]

Processes

Automated CO2 exchange system measuring soil respiration Automated CO2 Exchange system (ACE from ADC BioScientific Ltd) measuring soil respiration..JPG
Automated CO2 exchange system measuring soil respiration

Gas molecules in soil are in continuous thermal motion according to the kinetic theory of gases, and there is also collision between molecules – a random walk process. In soil, a concentration gradient causes net movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration, which gives the movement of gas by diffusion. Numerically, it is explained by the Fick's law of diffusion. Soil gas migration, specifically that of hydrocarbon species with one to five carbons, can also be caused by microseepage. [6]

The soil atmosphere's variable composition and constant motion can be attributed to chemical processes such as diffusion, decomposition, and, in some regions of the world, thawing, among other processes. Diffusion of soil air with the atmosphere causes the preferential replacement of soil gases with atmospheric air. [5] More significantly, moreover, variation in soil gas composition due to seasonal, or even daily, temperature and/or moisture change can influence the rate of soil respiration. [7]

According to the USDA, soil respiration refers to the quantity of carbon dioxide released from soil. This excess carbon dioxide is created by the decomposition of organic material by microbial organisms, in the presence of oxygen. [7] Given the importance of both soil gases to soil life, significant fluctuation of carbon dioxide and oxygen can result in changes in rate of decay, [7] while changes in microbial abundance can inversely influence soil gas composition.

In regions of the world where freezing of soils or drought is common, soil thawing and rewetting due to seasonal or meteorological changes influences soil gas flux. [3] Both processes hydrate the soil and increase nutrient availability leading to an increase in microbial activity. [3] This results in greater soil respiration and influences the composition of soil gases. [7] [3]

Studies and Research

Soil gases have been used for multiple scientific studies to explore topics such as microseepage, [6] earthquakes, [8] and gaseous exchange between the soil and the atmosphere. [9] [3] Microseepage refers to the limited release of hydrocarbons on the soil surface and can be used to look for petroleum deposits based on the assumption that hydrocarbons vertically migrate to the soil surface in small quantities. [6] Migration of soil gases, specifically radon, can also be examined as earthquake precursors. [8] Furthermore, for processes such as soil thawing and rewetting, for example, large sudden changes in soil respiration can cause increased flux of soil gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, which are greenhouse gases. [3] These fluxes and interactions between soil gases and atmospheric air can further be analyzed by distance from the soil surface. [9]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon dioxide</span> Chemical compound with formula CO₂

Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CO2. It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in the gas state at room temperature, and as the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle, atmospheric CO2 is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation, acting as a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater, lakes, ice caps, and seawater. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate, which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric CO2 levels increase.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hydrocarbon</span> Organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and hydrophobic; their odor is usually faint, and may be similar to that of gasoline or lighter fluid. They occur in a diverse range of molecular structures and phases: they can be gases, liquids, low melting solids or polymers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marsh gas</span> Gas produced naturally within marshes, swamps and bogs

Marsh gas, also known as swamp gas or bog gas, is a mixture primarily of methane and smaller amounts of hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and trace phosphine that is produced naturally within some geographical marshes, swamps, and bogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil</span> Mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life

Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support the life of plants and soil organisms. Some scientific definitions distinguish dirt from soil by restricting the former term specifically to displaced soil.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tar pit</span> Asphalt pit or asphalt lake

Tar pits, sometimes referred to as asphalt pits, are large asphalt deposits. They form in the presence of petroleum, which is created when decayed organic matter is subjected to pressure underground. If this crude oil seeps upward via fractures, conduits, or porous sedimentary rock layers, it may pool up at the surface. The lighter components of the crude oil evaporate into the atmosphere, leaving behind a black, sticky asphalt. Tar pits are often excavated because they contain large fossil collections.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gas exchange</span> Process by which gases diffuse through a biological membrane

Gas exchange is the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface. For example, this surface might be the air/water interface of a water body, the surface of a gas bubble in a liquid, a gas-permeable membrane, or a biological membrane that forms the boundary between an organism and its extracellular environment.

Anaerobic respiration is respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen (O2). Although oxygen is not the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain.

Methanogenesis or biomethanation is the formation of methane coupled to energy conservation by microbes known as methanogens. Organisms capable of producing methane for energy conservation have been identified only from the domain Archaea, a group phylogenetically distinct from both eukaryotes and bacteria, although many live in close association with anaerobic bacteria. The production of methane is an important and widespread form of microbial metabolism. In anoxic environments, it is the final step in the decomposition of biomass. Methanogenesis is responsible for significant amounts of natural gas accumulations, the remainder being thermogenic.

The pedosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The pedosphere is the skin of the Earth and only develops when there is a dynamic interaction between the atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere and the hydrosphere. The pedosphere is the foundation of terrestrial life on Earth.

Degassing, also known as degasification, is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids, especially water or aqueous solutions. There are numerous methods for removing gases from liquids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Landfill gas</span> Gaseous fossil fuel

Landfill gas is a mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill as they decompose organic waste, including for example, food waste and paper waste. Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane, with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide. Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) comprise the remainder (<1%). These trace gases include a large array of species, mainly simple hydrocarbons.

Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil. Soil chemistry is affected by mineral composition, organic matter and environmental factors. In the early 1870s a consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society in England, named J. Thomas Way, performed many experiments on how soils exchange ions, and is considered the father of soil chemistry. Other scientists who contributed to this branch of ecology include Edmund Ruffin, and Linus Pauling.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Soil respiration</span> Chemical process produced by soil and the organisms within it

Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire. This includes respiration of plant roots, the rhizosphere, microbes and fauna.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Methane</span> Hydrocarbon compound (CH₄) in natural gas

Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4. It is a group-14 hydride, the simplest alkane, and the main constituent of natural gas. The abundance of methane on Earth makes it an economically attractive fuel, although capturing and storing it is hard because it is a gas at standard temperature and pressure.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arctic methane emissions</span> Release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic

Arctic methane release is the release of methane from Arctic ocean waters as well as from soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic. While it is a long-term natural process, methane release is exacerbated by global warming. This results in a positive climate change feedback, as methane is a powerful greenhouse gas. The Arctic region is one of many natural sources of methane. Climate change could accelerate methane release in the Arctic, due to the release of methane from existing stores, and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass. When permafrost thaws as a consequence of warming, large amounts of organic material can become available for methanogenesis and may ultimately be released as methane.

Ecosystem respiration is the sum of all respiration occurring by the living organisms in a specific ecosystem. The two main processes that contribute to ecosystem respiration are photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Photosynthesis uses carbon-dioxide and water, in the presence of sunlight to produce glucose and oxygen whereas cellular respiration uses glucose and oxygen to produce carbon-dioxide, water, and energy. The coordination of inputs and outputs of these two processes creates a completely interconnected system, constituting the underlying functioning of the ecosystems overall respiration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Permafrost carbon cycle</span> Sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle

The permafrost carbon cycle or Arctic carbon cycle is a sub-cycle of the larger global carbon cycle. Permafrost is defined as subsurface material that remains below 0o C for at least two consecutive years. Because permafrost soils remain frozen for long periods of time, they store large amounts of carbon and other nutrients within their frozen framework during that time. Permafrost represents a large carbon reservoir, one which was often neglected in the initial research determining global terrestrial carbon reservoirs. Since the start of the 2000s, however, far more attention has been paid to the subject, with an enormous growth both in general attention and in the scientific research output.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands</span> Source of gas emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands of concern consist primarily of methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Wetlands are the largest natural source of atmospheric methane in the world, and are therefore a major area of concern with respect to climate change. Wetlands account for approximately 20–30% of atmospheric methane through emissions from soils and plants, and contribute an approximate average of 161 Tg of methane to the atmosphere per year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atmospheric carbon cycle</span> Transformation of atmospheric carbon between various forms

The atmospheric carbon cycle accounts for the exchange of gaseous carbon compounds, primarily carbon dioxide, between Earth's atmosphere, the oceans, and the terrestrial biosphere. It is one of the faster components of the planet's overall carbon cycle, supporting the exchange of more than 200 billion tons of carbon in and out of the atmosphere throughout the course of each year. Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 remain stable over longer timescales only when there exists a balance between these two flows. Methane, Carbon monoxide (CO), and other human-made compounds are present in smaller concentrations and are also part of the atmospheric carbon cycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oceanic carbon cycle</span> Ocean/atmosphere carbon exchange process

The oceanic carbon cycle is composed of processes that exchange carbon between various pools within the ocean as well as between the atmosphere, Earth interior, and the seafloor. The carbon cycle is a result of many interacting forces across multiple time and space scales that circulates carbon around the planet, ensuring that carbon is available globally. The Oceanic carbon cycle is a central process to the global carbon cycle and contains both inorganic carbon and organic carbon. Part of the marine carbon cycle transforms carbon between non-living and living matter.

References

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  2. Pierzynski, Gary M.; Sims, J. Thomas; Vance, George F., eds. (2005). Soils and environmental quality (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press . Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kim, Dong Gill; Vargas, Rodrigo; Bond-Lamberty, Ben; Turetsky, Merritt R. (2012). "Effects of soil rewetting and thawing on soil gas flaxes: a review of current literature and suggestions for future research" (PDF). Biogeosciences . 9 (7): 2459–2483. Bibcode:2012BGeo....9.2459K. doi: 10.5194/bg-9-2459-2012 . Retrieved 16 October 2022.
  4. Marrin, Donn L.; Kerfoot, Henry B. (1988). "Soil-gas surveying techniques: a new way to detect volatile organic contaminants in the subsurface". Environmental Science & Technology . 22 (7): 740–745. doi:10.1021/es00172a001. PMID   22195653 . Retrieved 23 October 2022.
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  6. 1 2 3 Dembicki Jr, Harry (2017). "Surface geochemistry". In Dembicki Jr, Harry (ed.). Practical petroleum geochemistry for exploration and production. Elsevier. pp. 217–252. ISBN   978-0-12-803350-0 . Retrieved 30 October 2022.
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  9. 1 2 Balesdent, Jérôme; Basile-Doelsch, Isabelle; Chadoeuf, Joël; Cornu, Sophie; Derrien, Delphine; Fekiacova, Zuzana; Hatté, Christine (2018). "Atmosphere–soil carbon transfer as a function of soil depth". Nature . 559 (7715): 599–602. Bibcode:2018Natur.559..599B. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0328-3. ISSN   1476-4687. PMID   29995858. S2CID   49669782 . Retrieved 6 November 2022.