Welsh national identity

Flag of Wales

Welsh national identity is a term referring to the sense of national identity, as embodied in the shared and characteristic culture, languages and traditions, ^[1] of the Welsh people.

History

Main article: History of Wales

Celtic era

See also: Celtic Britons

The Celtic Britons or Ancient Britons were the Celtic people who inhabited Great Britain from at least the British Iron Age and into the Middle Ages, at which point they diverged into the Welsh, Cornish and Bretons (among others). They spoke the Common Brittonic language, the ancestor of the modern Brittonic languages. ^[2]

Archaeologists generally agree that the majority of the British Isles were inhabited by Celts before the Roman invasion, organized into many tribes. ^[3] The area now known as Wales had no political or social unity and Romans did not give the area as a whole any distinctive name. ^[4] Northern Wales and southern Wales have some notable cultural differences before the Roman invasion, and should not be considered one entity. ^[5]

Resistance to Roman rule

Caradog, portrait in the National Library of Wales

The Roman conquest of what is now known as Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete; the occupation lasted over 300 years. ^[6] The most famous of resistance was led by Caradog of the Celtic Catuvellauni tribe (modern day Essex), which were defeated by the Romans. Now leading the Celtic tribes of the Ordovices and Silures, Caradog led a successful guerilla war against the Romans. His armies were eventually defeated at the Battle of Caer Caradog in AD 50. ^[7]

Anglesey was swelling with migrants fleeing from the Romans, and it had become a stronghold for the Druids. ^{[4] [8]} Despite the Romans initial fear and superstition of Anglesey, they were able to achieve victory and subdue the tribes there. ^[8] However, this victory was short lived and a massive British rebellion led by Boudica (Welsh : Buddug) erupted in the east and interrupted the consolidation of Wales. ^{[4] [8]} Only one tribe was left mostly intact throughout the conquest - the Demetae of what is now west Wales. This tribe did not oppose Rome, and developed peacefully, isolated from its neighbours and the Roman Empire. ^[8]

The Welsh national identity according to some, emerged in the year 383 when the Roman general Magnus Maximus left Wales. ^[9] Early historians, including the 6th-century cleric Gildas, have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history.^{[ dubious ] [10]} In that year, the Roman general Magnus Maximus, or Macsen Wledig, stripped Britain of troops to launch a successful bid for imperial power, continuing to rule Britain from Gaul as emperor, and transferring power to local leaders. ^{[11] [12]} The earliest Welsh genealogies cite Maximus as the founder of several royal dynasties, ^{[13] [14]} and as the father of the Welsh Nation. ^[10] He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg, erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales. ^[15]

Early Middle Ages

See also: Wales in the Early Middle Ages

After the Roman departure in AD 410, much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south-east was overrun by various Germanic peoples, commonly known as Anglo-Saxons. Some have theorised that the cultural dominance of the Anglo-Saxons was due to apartheid-like social conditions in which the Britons were at a disadvantage. ^[16] From the fifth century the Anglo-Saxon barbarians pushed to the north and the West and thus isolated the Celtic peoples of Wales from other Celts. At this stage Wales becomes a tangible territorial unit.The Welsh were also under attack from the Irish in the west and the Picts in the north. Cunedda Wledig, King of the Celtic Britons in Manaw Gododdin, moved to Gwynedd and established his kingdom there, expelling Irish settlers and consolidating the Brythonic language, the precursor to modern Welsh. ^[17]

Arthur, legendary King of the Britons said to have won a battle against the Anglo-Saxons

By AD 500 the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon rule. ^[18] The kingdoms of Gwynedd, Powys, Dyfed and Seisyllwg, Morgannwg and Gwent emerged as independent Welsh successor states. ^[18] Archaeological evidence, in the Low Countries and what was to become England, shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which concurs with Frankish chronicles. ^[19] John Davies notes this as consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill, attributed to Arthur by Nennius. ^[19] During the sixth and seventh centuries, Anglo-Saxon pressure westwards caused a break in the link between Celts in modern-day Welsh territory and their Celtic compatriots in other areas outside Wales. The Celtic link with Cornwall was broken following Anglo-Saxons victory in Dyrham, Gloucestershire in 577 and from the Celts of Cumbria area (Hen Ogledd) in 616 after defeat at the battle of Chester. Settlers from Cornwall contributed the Celtic population of modern-day Brittany, which today has the same anthem tune as Wales. ^{[17] [20]}

The southern and eastern parts of Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as Lloegyr (Modern Welsh Lloegr), which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole. ^{[n 1]} The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called Saeson, meaning "Saxons". The Anglo-Saxons called the Romano-British * Walha , meaning 'Romanised foreigner' or 'stranger'. ^[21]

From Brython to Cymro

The Welsh continued to call themselves Brythoniaid (Brythons or Britons) well into the Middle Ages, though the first written evidence of the use of Cymru and y Cymry is found in the praise poem to the King of the Britons in Gwynedd, Cadwallon ap Cadfan. The poem, Moliant Cadwallon was written by the king's bard Afan Ferddig in c. 633. ^{[22] [23]} The early Middle Ages saw the creation and adoption of the modern Welsh name for themselves, Cymry, a word descended from Common Brittonic combrogi, meaning "fellow-countrymen". ^{[24] [25]} Cymry probably came into use as a self-description before the seventh century. ^[23] Historically the word applies to both the Welsh and the Brythonic-speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland, the peoples of the Hen Ogledd, and emphasises a perception that the Welsh and the "Men of the North" were one people, exclusive of all others. Universal acceptance of the term as the preferred written one came slowly in Wales, eventually supplanting the earlier Brython or Brittones. ^[26] The term was not applied to the Cornish people or the Bretons, who share a similar heritage, culture and language with the Welsh and the Men of the North. ^[25] All of the Cymry shared a similar language, culture and heritage. Their histories are stories of warrior kings waging war, and they are intertwined in a way that is independent of physical location, in no way dissimilar to the way that the histories of neighbouring Gwynedd and Powys are intertwined. Kings of Gwynedd campaigned against Brythonic opponents in the north. ^[27] Sometimes the kings of different kingdoms acted in concert, as is told in the literary Y Gododdin . Much of the early Welsh poetry and literature was written in the Old North by northern Cymry. ^[28] In Armes Prydain , believed to be written around 930–942, the words Cymry and Cymro are used as often as 15 times. ^[29] However, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement onwards, the people gradually begin to adopt the name Cymry over Brythoniad. ^[30]

Welsh unity

Rhodri Fawr, "King of Wales"

Although traditionally, the kingdoms of Wales were described as being continuously at war with each other, in reality they shared a history of peaceful and gradual unity via series of royal marriages and policy. Pressures of Viking attacks also led to increased unity and gathering under strong leaders. This "unifying" process began with Merfyn Frych, King of Gwynedd in the 9th century and his son Rhodri Mawr. ^[17] From 800 onwards, a series of dynastic marriages led to Rhodri Mawr 's (r. 844–77) inheritance of Gwynedd and Powys . ^[31] Rhodri briefly united much of Wales under his rule, the likes of which had not been seen before. ^[17]

A scholar from St Davids named Asser wrote in 893 that Offa of Mercia, the Anglo-Saxon king, had built Offa's Dyke (Welsh : Clawdd Offa) to separate the Anglo-Saxons and the Celtic Britons. Offa, according to Dr Rebecca Thomas defined the territory of the Celtic Britons as Wales. ^[32] The dyke established a compromise frontier with the Celts of Wales and a firm boundary of 149 miles from sea to sea for the first time in the Celts' history. It has been described as the most striking man-made boundary in western Europe. ^[17]

In the 9th century, Nennius, a Welsh monk from Gwynedd, wrote a Latin text that including place names in both Welsh and English, in which he referred to the Welsh language as "our language". ^[32]

Welsh Law

Hywel Dda, "King of Wales"

His sons founded the three dynasties of ( Aberffraw for Gwynedd, Dinefwr for Deheubarth and Mathrafal for Powys). Rhodri's grandson Hywel Dda (r. 900–50) founded Deheubarth out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of Dyfed and Seisyllwg in 930, ousted the Aberffraw dynasty from Gwynedd and Powys and then codified Welsh law in the 940s. ^[31]

King of Wales", Hywel Dda (r. 900–50) founded Deheubarth out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of Dyfed and Seisyllwg in 930, ousted the Aberffraw dynasty from Gwynedd and Powys and then codified Welsh law in the 940s. ^[31] By tradition, Welsh Law was compiled during an assembly held at Whitland around 930 by Hywel Dda, king of most of Wales between 942 and his death in 950. ^{[33] [34] [35]}

According to Welsh historian John Davies, the law of Wales is "among the most splendid creations of the culture of the Welsh". Over the centuries, Welsh law was a powerful symbol of the unity and identity of the Welsh and was uniform in its essence across the whole of Wales. Cyfraith Hywel ("The Law of Hywel") as it became known, codified the previously existing folk laws and legal customs that had evolved in Wales over centuries. Welsh Law emphasised the payment of compensation for a crime to the victim, or the victim's kin, rather than punishment by the ruler. The law of Wales according to Dafydd Jenkins, contained elements of mercy, common sense and respect for women and children, which was lacking in the Law of England until very recently. ^{[33] [34] [35]}

High to Late Middle ages

See also: Wales in the High Middle Ages and Wales in the Late Middle Ages

Unification

Map of the kingdom of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, King of Wales

  Wales

Wales first appeared as a unified independent country in 1055 under the leadership of the only King of Wales to have controlled all the territories of Wales, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn until 1063. ^[36] In 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed his rival Gruffydd ap Rhydderch in battle and recaptured Deheubarth. ^[37] Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he was ruler of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. He ruled Wales with no internal battles ^[38] His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms. ^[39] John Davies states that Gruffydd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor." ^[40] Between 1053 and 1063, Wales lacked any internal strife and was at peace. ^[38] Three years later the Norman invasion began which briefly controlled much of Wales, but by 1100 Anglo-Normans control was reduced to the lowland Gwent, Glamorgan, Gower, and Pembroke, regions which experienced considerable Anglo-Norman colonisation, while the contested border region between the Welsh princes and Anglo-Norman barons became known as the Welsh Marches. ^[41]

Welsh Princes

Owain Gwynedd (1100–70) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title princeps Wallensium (prince of the Welsh), a title of substance given his victory on the Berwyn Mountains, according to John Davies. ^[42] It is broadly agreed by historians that the Welsh national identity existed by the 12th century. ^[32]

Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great) ruled Gwynedd unchallenged by 1208, annexed southern Powys and marched into Ceredigion. He was forced into humiliating terms with King John of England in 1211, but by 1212 became the dominant force in Deheubarth and took advantage of general Welsh resistance against conquest of Wales by an English king and Welsh princes agreed loyalty and bond of homage and fealty to Llywelyn. in 1216 he summoned Welsh princes to a kind of national Welsh parliament at Aberdyfi. In 1283 he again summoned all Welsh princes who swore loyalty to his son Dafydd at Strata Florida Abbey. ^[17]

Gerallt Gymro (Gerald of Wales) describes an early definition of Welsh nationhood be describing the Welsh as community of people living in a defined territory, with common ancestry also seeking to defend the territory of Wales. The essence of the Welsh national identity was racial, cultural and social and from the time of Gerald there were aspirations to add a political sense of nationhood also. After 1200 there is evidence to suggest that the poets of Wales shifted to use the terms Cymro (Welshman) rather than Brython (Briton of Celtic origin). ^[43]

In the 13th century, the last prince of Wales, Llywelyn the Last retained his rights to Wales in agreement with King Henry in the treaty of Montgomery in 1267. Henry's successor, Edward I disapproved of Llywelyn's alliance with Simon de Montfort, who revolted along with other barons against the English king in the second barons' war of 1264 to 1267 and so in 1276, Edward's army forced Llywelyn into an agreement that saw Llywelyn withdraw his powers to Gwynedd only. In 1282 whilst attempting to gather support in Cilmeri near Builth Wells, Llywelyn was killed by one of Edward's soldiers. Llywelyn's brother, Dafydd ap Gruffydd briefly led a force in Wales, but was captured and later hung drawn and quartered by Edward, thus ending Welsh independence. ^{[44] [45]}

Llywelyn the Last (Llywelyn ap Gruffudd) memorial rock, Cilmeri

Aftermath of conquest

Following the conquest a poet asked “’Is it the end of the world?". A contemporary chronicler stated that "And then all Wales was cast to the ground.’” Professor Rees Davies suggests that the Welsh people continued to cultivate their own separate identity stating, “Wales remained a country because its people believed it to be a country.” ^[46]

Following the conquest of the English king, the evolution of the Welsh nobles to the gentry meant that the poets of the time were commissioned by these "lesser nobles" and produced a body of Welsh literature which only strengthened Welsh self-awareness which then led to a series of Welsh revolts. ^[47] The Welsh clergy and the monks were keen to maintain the Welsh identity. The English authorities on the other hand were determined to remove the influence of Welsh cistercian communities. ^[48]

Owain Glyndwr statue, Corwen

Following the English conquest, there were multiple Welsh rebellions against English rule. The last, and the most significant revolt was the Glyndŵr Rising of 1400–1415, which briefly restored independence. Owain Glyndŵr held the first Welsh parliament (Senedd) in Machynlleth in 1404 where he was proclaimed Prince of Wales and a second parliament in 1405 in Harlech. Following the eventual defeat of the Glyndŵr rebellion and a brief period of independence, it wasn't until 1999 that a Welsh legislative body was re-established as the National Assembly of Wales which was renamed Senedd Cymru/Welsh Parliament in 2020. ^{[49] [50]}

Early modern period

A distinct Welsh identity continued in Wales through religion. Puritanism grew in Wales, particularly Methodism in the 18th century and the Welsh language was also associated with it. ^[51]

During the industrial period in Wales and in the 19th century, history became more important as a symbol of Welsh identity, as the Welsh language as the number of Welsh speakers decreased. Wales became a modern industrial nation but at the same time, the Welsh language became a minority language in Wales for the first time. ^[52] The influx of English-speakers to South Wales in particular contributed to this. ^[51]

Politically, Wales had strongly supported the Liberal party as well as the radical political movement. However, during most of the 20th century, support of the labour party and class solidarity became synonymous with Wales. ^[51]

The Sunday Closing (Wales) Act 1881 was the first legislation to acknowledge that Wales had a separate politico-legal character from the rest of the English state. ^{[53] [ page needed ]}

Home rule movement

Main article: Welsh devolution

Welsh nationalism for example (Welsh : Cenedlaetholdeb Cymreig) emphasises the distinctiveness of Welsh language, culture, and history, and calls for more self-determination for Wales, which might include more devolved powers for the Senedd or full independence from the United Kingdom. While a sense of nationhood has existed within Wales for over 1500 years, the idea that Wales should be a modern self-determining state has only been mooted since the mid-18th century. ^[54]

In 1886 Joseph Chamberlain proposed "Home Rule All Round" in the United Kingdom, and in the same year, the Cymru Fydd (Young Wales) movement was founded to further the cause. ^{[53] [ page needed ]} The main leaders were David Lloyd George (later Prime Minister), J. E. Lloyd, O. M. Edwards, T. E. Ellis (leader, MP for Merioneth, 1886–1899) and Beriah Gwynfe Evans. Its main objective was to gain self-government for Wales. ^[55] Their goal was a devolved assembly, but the movement was disbanded in 1896 amid personal rivalries and rifts between Liberal representatives such as David Alfred Thomas. ^{[53] [ page needed ] [56]}

Cofiwch Dryweryn mural in 2020

By the end of the 1930s there was concern that a second world war could cause the disappearance of the Welsh national identity as well as the political party of Plaid Cymru. ^[57]

Parliament for Wales

In the 1950s, the deterioration of the British Empire removed a sense of Britishness and there was a realisation that Wales was not as prosperous as south-east England and smaller European countries. Successive Conservative Party victories in Westminster led to suggestions that only through self-government could Wales achieve a government reflecting the votes of a Welsh electorate. The Tryweryn flooding which was voted against by every single Welsh MP, suggested that Wales as a nation was powerless. ^[58] The Epynt clearance in 1940 has also been described as a "significant - but often overlooked - chapter in the history of Wales". ^[59]

On 1 July 1955, a conference of all parties was called at Llandrindod by the New Wales Union (Undeb Cymru Fydd) to consider a national petition for the campaign for a Parliament for Wales. The main leader was Megan Lloyd George, the daughter of David Lloyd George, T. I. Ellis, and Sir Ifan ab Owen Edwards. According to the historian Dr William Richard Philip George, "Megan was responsible for removing much prejudice against the idea of a parliament for Wales". She later presented the petition with 250,000 signatures to the British government in April 1956. ^[60]

The Labour Party's 1959 commitment to appoint a Secretary of State for Wales, the creation of the Welsh Office in 1965, ^[61] and the repeal of the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 two years later seemed to demonstrate a growing nationalist impetus. ^{[53] [ page needed ]}

Legal status of Wales

Senedd

The Welsh Language Act 1967 repealed a section of the Wales and Berwick Act and thus "Wales" was no longer part of the legal definition of England. This essentially defined Wales as a separate entity legally (but within the UK), for the first time since before the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 which defined Wales as a part of the Kingdom of England. The Welsh Language Act 1967 also expanded areas where use of Welsh was permitted, including in some legal situations. ^{[62] [63] [64]}

Devolution

Main article: Welsh devolution

In a referendum in 1979, Wales voted against the creation of a Welsh assembly with an 80 per cent majority. In 1997, a second referendum on the same issue secured a very narrow majority (50.3 per cent). ^[65] The National Assembly for Wales (Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru) was set up in 1999 (under the Government of Wales Act 1998) with the power to determine how Wales' central government budget is spent and administered, although the UK Parliament reserved the right to set limits on its powers. ^[65] Following the establishment of a devolved national assembly for Wales, the governments of the United Kingdom and of Wales almost invariably defined Wales as a country. ^{[66] [67]} The Welsh Government says: "Wales is not a Principality. Although we are joined with England by land, and we are part of Great Britain, Wales is a country in its own right." ^{[68] [n 2]}

Senedd Cymru - Parliament of Wales

Further powers

The Government of Wales Act 2006 (c 32) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that reformed the National Assembly for Wales and allows further powers to be granted to it more easily. The Act creates a system of government with a separate executive drawn from and accountable to the legislature. ^[70] Following a successful referendum in 2011 on extending the law making powers of the National Assembly it is now able to make laws, known as Acts of the Assembly, on all matters in devolved subject areas, without needing the UK Parliament's agreement. ^[70]

In the 2016 referendum, Wales voted in support of leaving the European Union, although demographic differences became evident. According to Danny Dorling, professor of geography at the Oxford University, “If you look at the more genuinely Welsh areas, especially the Welsh-speaking ones, they did not want to leave the EU,” ^[71]

After the Senedd and Elections (Wales) Act 2020, the National Assembly was renamed "Senedd Cymru" (in Welsh) and the "Welsh Parliament" (in English) (also collectively referred to as the "Senedd"), which was seen as a better reflection of the body's expanded legislative powers. ^[72]

Welsh independence

Rally for Welsh Independence, Cardiff 2019

Main article: Welsh independence

The modern Welsh independence movement emerged during the mid-19th century, as did a movement for "home rule". Since 1999, Wales has been granted some legislative power as part of Welsh devolution from the UK parliament, and contemporary Welsh law within the English legal system. At present, the political parties Plaid Cymru, ^[73] Propel, Gwlad, and the Wales Green Party support Welsh independence. ^[74]

In 2016, YesCymru was launched. A non party-political campaign for an independent Wales which held its first rally in Cardiff in 2019. ^[75]

Support for independence has increased from 14% in 2014 to a higher support of 46% in April 2021, according to a survey of voting intention, and when excluding "don't knows". ^{[76] [77]}

Culture

Main article: Culture of Wales

Welsh Language

Further information: History of the Welsh language and Welsh-speaking population

"Cymdeithas yr Iaith" (Society for the Language) bilingual road sign protest, 1972

The Welsh language (Welsh : Cymraeg) has been described as the most potent symbol of Welsh national identity. ^[52] The language is an Indo-European language of the Celtic family; ^[78] the most closely related languages are Cornish and Breton. Most linguists believe that the Celtic languages arrived in Britain around 600 BCE. ^[79] The Brythonic languages ceased to be spoken in of England and were replaced by the English language, which arrived in Wales around the end of the eighth century due to the defeat of the Kingdom of Powys. ^[80]

The Bible translations into Welsh and Protestant Reformation, which encouraged use of the vernacular in religious services, helped the language survive after Welsh elites abandoned it in favour of English in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. ^[81]

Successive Welsh language acts, in 1942, 1967 and 1993 improved the legal status of Welsh. ^[82] The Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 modernised the 1993 Welsh Language Act and gave Welsh an official status in Wales for the first time, a major landmark for the language. Welsh is the only official de jure language of any country in the UK. The Measure was also responsible for creating the post of Welsh Language Commissioner, replacing the Welsh Language Board. ^[83] Following the referendum in 2011, the Official Languages Act became the first Welsh law to be created in 600 years, according to the First Minister at the time, Carwyn Jones. This law was passed by Welsh AMs only and made Welsh an official language of the National Assembly. ^[84]

Starting in the 1960s, many road signs have been replaced by bilingual versions. ^[85] Various public and private sector bodies have adopted bilingualism to a varying degree and (since 2011) Welsh is the only official language in any part of the United Kingdom. ^[86]

Festivals and celebration

Main articles: Holidays in Wales and List of festivals in Wales

Saint David's Day

St David's Day, 2014.

Saint David's Day (Welsh : Dydd Gwyl Dewi) is a national celebration of Welsh culture. ^[87] For centuries, 1 March has been a national festival. Saint David was recognised as a national patron saint in the 12th century ^[88] at a peak time of Welsh resistance to the Normans. ^[89] He was canonised by Pope Callixtus II in 1120. The 17th-century diarist Samuel Pepys noted how Welsh celebrations in London for Saint David's Day would spark wider counter-celebrations amongst their English neighbours: life-sized effigies of Welshmen were symbolically lynched, ^[90] and by the 18th century the custom had arisen of confectioners producing "taffies"—gingerbread figures baked in the shape of a Welshman riding a goat—on Saint David's Day. ^[91]

Eisteddfod

In Welsh culture, an eisteddfod ^{[lower-alpha 1]} is a festival with several ranked competitions, including in poetry and music. ^{[93] : xvi} The term eisteddfod, which is formed from the Welsh morphemes: eistedd, meaning 'sit', and fod, meaning 'be', ^[94] means, according to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "sitting-together." Edwards further defines the earliest form of the eisteddfod as a competitive meeting between bards and minstrels, in which the winner was chosen by a noble or royal patron. ^[95] The eisteddfod tradition in Wales originates from bardic tournaments of the 12th century. Thousands attend the August festival with rites, competitions and festivities celebrating the Welsh identity. ^[96]

Symbols

Main article: National symbols of Wales

Welsh Dragon

Main article: Flag of Wales

Welsh flags flown outside the Senedd building on Saint David's Day in 2009

The Welsh Dragon (Welsh : Y Ddraig Goch) is a heraldic symbol that appears on the national flag of Wales. The oldest recorded use of the dragon to symbolise Wales is in the Historia Brittonum , written around AD 829, but it is popularly supposed to have been the battle standard of King Arthur and other ancient Celtic leaders. Its association with these leaders, along with other evidence from archaeology, literature, and documentary history, led many to suppose that it evolved from an earlier Romano-British national symbol. ^[97]

The Flag of Wales incorporates the red dragon (Y Ddraig Goch) of King Cadwalader along with the Tudor colours of green and white. ^[98] The red dragon symbolises the original Celtic Britons (now Welsh) referenced in "Cyfranc Lludd a Lleuelys", Historia Brittonum , Historia Regum Britanniae , and the Welsh triads. Vortigern (Welsh : Gwrtheyrn) King of the Celtic Britons from Powys is interrupted whilst attempting to build fort at Dinas Emrys, and is told by Ambrosius or Merlin (Welsh : Myrddin) that he must dig up two dragons beneath. He discovers a red dragon representing the Celtic Britons and a white dragon representing Anglo-Saxons (now English). Ambrosius/Merlin prophesies that the Celtic Britons will reclaim the island and push the Anglo-Saxons back to the sea. ^{[99] [100]}

The first official flag of Wales was created in 1953 for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. This "augmented" flag including the Royal badge of Wales was criticised in 1958 by the "Gorsedd y Beirdd", a national Welsh group comprising Welsh literary figures and Welsh people of note. In 1959, likely in response to criticism, the Welsh flag was changed to a red Welsh dragon on a green and white background that remains the current flag of Wales today. ^[101]

Glyndwr flag/arms

Glyndwr's banner is still used today as a symbol of Welsh identity and independence.

The banner of Owain Glyndŵr is associated with Welsh nationhood. ^[102] The banner of Owain Glyndŵr, was carried into battle by Welsh forces during Glyndŵr's battles against the English, includes four lions on red and gold. The standard is similar to the arms of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (Llywelyn the Last), the last Prince of Wales before the conquest of Wales by Edward I of England. The design may also be influenced by the arms of Glyndwr's parents, both of whom had lions in their arms. ^[103]

Daffodil and leek

Daffodils and leeks, two of the national symbols of Wales

The daffodil and the leek are both symbols of Wales and are associated with Saint David's Day. ^{[87] [104]} The origins of the leek can be traced to the 16th century, while the daffodil became popular in the 19th century, encouraged by David Lloyd George. ^[104] This is attributed to confusion (or association) between the Welsh for leek, cenhinen, and that for daffodil, cenhinen Bedr or St. Peter's leek. ^[105]

Capital City

On 21 December 1955, the Lord Mayor of Cardiff (Welsh : Caerdydd) announced to a crowd that Cardiff was now the official capital of Wales following a parliamentary vote the previous day by Welsh local authority members. Cardiff won the vote with 136 votes compared to second-placed Caernarfon with 11. A campaign for Cardiff to become the capital city had been ongoing for 30 years prior to the vote. Historian James Cowan outlined some reasons why Cardiff was chosen which included; being the largest city in Wales with a population of 243,632, buildings in Cathays park such as City Hall and the National Museum of Wales among other reasons. Dr Martin Johnes, lecturer at Swansea University claims that Cardiff had become "a capital in a meaningful way, as the home of the Welsh government, whereas before, its capital status was irrelevant, it was just symbolic" prior to the formation of the devolved assembly of 1999. ^[106]

Welsh love-spoon

The "centuries old craft" and tradition of making Welsh lovespoons has been described as "a part of our identity". ^[107]

Music

Main article: Music of Wales

Anthems

"Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" is the unofficial national anthem of Wales. ^[108] The words were written by Evan James and the tune composed by his son, James James, both residents of Pontypridd, Glamorgan, in January 1856. ^{[108] [109]} The earliest written copy survives and is part of the collections of the National Library of Wales. ^[109]

The song "Yma o Hyd" has been described by its composer, Dafydd Iwan as a "very positive song" that celebrates the "survival of the language against all odds and the survival of a nation". ^[110] The song cites the survival of Wales and the Welsh language for over 1,600 years, ever since Roman officer, Magnus Maximus left Wales and the island of Britain to become Emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 383 AD, and thus the year in which the modern country of Wales was born. ^[111] Martin Johnes, professor of history at Swansea University has suggested that song is an anthem for “Welsh nationalists, Welsh-speaking culture and the industrial working class of Wales". "Wales was politically annexed in 1280; we haven't had a totally self-governing political unit since." The language was banned by Henry VIII of England in 1536 which lasted over 400 years, until 1942, and so “the survival of Welsh identity is pretty remarkable”. ^[111]

Triple harp

Welsh triple harp

The triple harp is seen by a significant number of people as a symbol of Wales, with its struggle similar to that of Wales as well as the Welsh language in the last century. ^[52]

Sport

Main article: Sport in Wales

The Wales football team arriving back in Wales after reaching the semi-finals of Euro 2016.

Football

The Wales national football team has been described as championing Welshness and is now seen as a symbol of Welsh culture and language. ^[112]

Following the UEFA Euro 2016 tournament, the Wales national football team received a reception of a homecoming celebration. Wales were welcomed back home on 8 July with an open-top bus parade around Cardiff, starting at Cardiff Castle and going past the Millennium Stadium before finishing at the Cardiff City Stadium. ^[113]

During the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, the symbolic song Yma o Hyd was sung live by Dafydd Iwan before kick-off of the penultimate qualifying game Austria with Wales winning 2–1. ^[111] After beating Austria in the play-off semi-final, Wales qualified for the World Cup for the first time since 1958 with a 1–0 win over Ukraine at the Cardiff City Stadium on 5 June 2022. ^[114] Yma o Hyd was again sang before the match and Gareth Bale, the Welsh captain also led the Welsh team in singing along with Iwan after the final whistle. ^{[115] [116]}

Rugby

Wales Grand Slam celebration 2012 at the Senedd

Rugby union and Wales' national team hold an important place in Welsh culture and society. Sport historian John Bale has stated that "rugby is characteristically Welsh", and David Andrews said that "To the popular consciousness, rugby is as Welsh as coal mining, male voice choirs, How Green Was My Valley , Dylan Thomas, and Tom Jones". ^[117] Welsh rugby's first 'golden age' (1900–1911) coincided with the country's zenith during the 20th century, ^[118] and rugby was important in building Wales' modern identity. ^[119] There is a long tradition of Welsh supporters singing before and during matches. The choral tradition developed in Wales during the 19th century alongside the rise of nonconformity, and has extended to singing at rugby matches. ^[120] Commonly sung songs include the hymn Cwm Rhondda , ^[120] Tom Jones' Delilah , ^[121] and Max Boyce's Hymns and Arias. ^[122]

Politicising of Welsh national identity

The Welsh national identity has become increasingly politicised in Wales since devolution. The sense of identity is not uniform across all Welsh political parties, which each party expressing their own version merged with political ideology. ^[123]

A Plaid Cymru interviewee has suggested that Plaid Cymru is the only truly Welsh party. A Welsh Labour interviewee has suggested that being Welsh and Labour was a "natural" state. The Welsh Conservatives claim that they have had to work the most in order to provide an image of convincing "Welshness" to the Welsh electorate in order to overcome the historical image of the Welsh Conservatives as being both English and anti-Welsh. ^[123]

A Welsh Labour senior assembly member has suggested that "Fifteen years ago, we had difficulty with the idea of Welsh Labour…those days are long gone…Welsh Labour probably now has a stronger Welsh identity than it has ever done" (7/11/2014). A Welsh conservative assembly member stated "The Conservative Party over the past fifteen, twenty years, has developed its Welsh branch…certainly since the establishment of the Assembly, it certainly has had to become more Welsh…" (18/8/14). ^[123]

Geography & Archaeology

Main article: Geography of Wales

Wales is part of the highland zone which has contributed to the identity of the country over many ages. Aspects that have shaped the uniqueness of Wales over the last 2000 years have also existed as far back as five to ten thousand years earlier. Geography and geology form the shape of Wales, and its culture has been researched by respected archaeologists. ^[124]

Demographics

See also: Demographics of Wales

• The 2011 census found that 57.5% identified as "Welsh only", 7.1% identified as "Welsh and British" and a combined proportion of people identifying as Welsh as 64.6%. ^[125]
• A 2018 poll, commissioned by the BBC and carried out by YouGov, found that almost eight in 10 (79%) people in Wales identified strongly as British; while six in 10 (62%) identified strongly as Welsh. ^{[126] [127]}
• A 2019 BBC poll of a 1000 people in Wales found that at least 92% identified as Welsh. Of those questioned, 21% said they felt "Welsh not British", 27% said they felt "more Welsh than British" and 44% felt "equally British and Welsh" with the remaining 7% identifying as "more" or "exclusively British". ^[107]
• The 2021 census showed that 55.2% identified as "Welsh only", 8.1% identified as "Welsh and British" and a combined proportion of people identifying as Welsh at 63.3%. ^[128]
• The Welsh Annual Population Survey showed that the proportion of people who identified as Welsh versus another identity was 62.3% in 2022 compared to 69.2% in 2001. ^[129]
• A 2022 YouGov poll found that 21% consider themselves Welsh not British, 15% more Welsh than British, 24% equally Welsh and British, 7% more British than Welsh and 20% British and not Welsh and 8% other. A total of 67% considered themselves Welsh to some degree. ^[130]

Welsh election study

Welsh election study
Year conducted	Welsh (% change)		Other (% change)
	Welsh only	Welsh British	British only (not Welsh)	English only	English British	British only (not English)	Other
2021 [131]	30% (+6)	19% (-8)	7% (+1)	3% (+1)	12% (-4)	13% (+4)	17% (+1)
2016 [131]	24%	27%	6%	2%	16%	9%	16%

Multiple Option Polls

Year conducted	Polling organisation or client	Welsh				Other
		Welsh not British/Welsh only	More Welsh than British	Welsh and British/ Equally Welsh and British	More British than Welsh	British only	Other	Don't know
2022	YouGov [130]	21%	15%	24%	7%	20%
2020	YouGov [132]	21%	17%	22%	9%	17%	11%	3%
2019	ICM / BBC [107]	21%	27%	44%	7%
2014	ICM / BBC [133]	16%	18%	39%	8%	16%	n/a	0%

Census

Year conducted	Welsh			Other										Notes
	Welsh only	Welsh and British	Total Welsh	British only	English only	English and British	Total British and/or English only	At least one non-UK nationality	Non-UK national identity	Polish	Irish	Romanian	Indian
2021 [128]	55.2% (-2.3)	8.1% (+1)	63.3% (-1.3)	18.5% (+1.6)	9.1% (-2.1)	1.8% (+0.3)	29.4 (-0.2)	5.4% (+1.6)	4.2% (+0.8)	0.7% (+0.1)	0.3%	0.2%	0.2%
2011 [134] [128]	57.5%	7.1%	64.6%	16.9%	11.2%	1.5%	29.6%	3.8%	3.4%	0.6%				“How would you describe your national identity?” The possible answers were: Welsh, English, Scottish, Northern Irish, British, other. More than one answer could be picked.

By age (2011)

Source: ^[135]

Age	Welsh			Other
	Welsh only	Welsh and British	Total Welsh	British only	English only	All other involving UK identities	Other identity only	Total English or British only	Total others
0-17	65%	8%	73%	16%	6%	3%	3%	22%	6%
18-34	55%	7%	62%	16%	10%	4%	7%	26%	11%
35-59	56%	7%	63%	19%	11%	4%	3%	30%	7%
60-74	55%	7%	62%	17%	16%	4%	1%	33%	5%
75+	57%	6%	63%	14%	17%	4%	1%	31%	5%

See also

• Welsh people
• Culture of Wales
• History of Wales
• Politics of Wales
• Welsh language
• Welsh nationalism
• Welsh devolution
• Welsh independence
• Wales bucket hat

Notes

1. The earliest instance of Lloegyr occurs in the early 10th-century prophetic poem Armes Prydein . It seems comparatively late as a place name, the nominative plural Lloegrwys , "men of Lloegr", being earlier and more common. The English were sometimes referred to as an entity in early poetry (Saeson, as today) but just as often as Eingl (Angles), Iwys (Wessex-men), etc. Lloegr and Sacson became the norm later when England emerged as a kingdom. As for its origins, some scholars have suggested that it originally referred only to Mercia – at that time a powerful kingdom and for centuries the main foe of the Welsh. It was then applied to the new kingdom of England as a whole (see for instance Rachel Bromwich (ed.), Trioedd Ynys Prydein , University of Wales Press, 1987). "The lost land" and other fanciful meanings, such as Geoffrey of Monmouth's monarch Locrinus, have no etymological basis.
2. The title Prince of Wales is still conferred on the heir apparent to the British throne, currently Prince Charles, but he has no constitutional role in modern Wales. ^[69] According to the Welsh Government: "Our Prince of Wales at the moment is Prince Charles, who is the present heir to the throne. But he does not have a role in the governance of Wales, even though his title might suggest that he does." ^[68]

1. /aɪˈstɛðvɒd/ ( listen ) eye-STEDH-vod, also US: /eɪˈ-/ ay-, UK: /aɪˈstɛdvəd,-fəd,-vɒd,-fɒd/ eye-STED-vəd, -⁠fəd, -⁠vod, -⁠fod, Welsh:  [e(i)ˈstɛðvɔd] ( listen ); plural eisteddfods ^[92] or eisteddfodau [e(i)stɛðˈvɔda(ɨ)]

References

1. "National identity | Definition of national identity in US English by Oxford Dictionaries". Archived from the original on August 5, 2017.
2. Koch 2006, p. 291.
3. Hayes, M.A.R.M., & Hayes, A. (1995). Archaeology of the British Isles (1st ed.). Routledge. Ch. 6.
4. Malcolm, Todd (2007). Companion to Roman Britain. Blackwell Companions to British History. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. Ch. 5.
5. Cunliffe, Barry. (2006) Iron Age Communities in Britain : An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest. Milton: Taylor & Francis Group. Ch. 5
6. Jones, Barri; Mattingly, David (1990). "The Development of the Provinces". An Atlas of Roman Britain. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007). p. 151. ISBN   978-1-84217-067-0.
7. "The Romans in Wales". Historic UK. Retrieved 2022-05-01.
8. Cunliffe, Barry. (2006) Iron Age Communities in Britain : An Account of England, Scotland and Wales from the Seventh Century BC until the Roman Conquest. Milton: Taylor & Francis Group. Ch. 10
9. Williams, Gwyn A. (1991). When was Wales?: A History of the Welsh. Penguin Books. ISBN   978-0-14-013643-2.
10. Davies 2008, p. 531.
11. Frere, Sheppard Sunderland (1987). "The End of Roman Britain". Britannia: A History of Roman Britain (3rd, revised ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 354. ISBN   978-0-7102-1215-3.
12. Gildas. On The Ruin of Britain (De Excidio Britanniae)  – via Wikisource. 14. After this, Britain is left deprived of all her soldiery and armed bands, of her cruel governors, and of the flower of her youth, who went with Maximus, but never again returned; and utterly ignorant as she was of the art of war, groaned in amazement for many years under the cruelty of two foreign nations--the Scots from the north-west, and the Picts from the north.
13. Phillimore, Egerton, ed. (1887). "Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20". Y Cymmrodor. Vol. VIII. Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. pp. 83–92.
14. Phillimore, Egerton (1888). "The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859". In Phillimore, Egerton (ed.). Y Cymmrodor. Vol. IX. Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. pp. 141–183.
15. Rachel Bromwich, editor and translator. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, Third Edition, 2006. 441–444
16. Ravilious, Kate (21 July 2006). "Ancient Britain Had Apartheid-Like Society, Study Suggests". National Geographic News. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
17. J Graham, Jones (2022). THE HISTORY OF WALES (3rd ed.). GWASG PRIFYSGOL CYMRU UNIVERSITY OF WALES PRESS. ISBN   978-1-78316-170-6. OCLC   1303432758.
18. Davies 2008, p. 915.
19. Davies 1994, p. 56.
20. "Watch: Joe Rodon discovers Rennes anthem is the same as Wales". Nation.Cymru. 2022-08-03. Retrieved 2022-08-05.
21. Davies 1994, p. 2.
22. Davies 1994, p. 71.
23. Phillimore 1891 :97–101 harvcolnb error: no target: CITEREFPhillimore1891 (help)Y Cymmrodor vol. XI, Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany
24. Phillimore 1891 :99 harvcolnb error: no target: CITEREFPhillimore1891 (help)Y Cymmrodor vol. XI, Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany, p. 99
25. Rhys 1904, p. 281.
26. Lloyd 1911, pp. 191–192.
27. Morris-Jones, John (1918), "Taliesin's Marwnad Rhun (Elegy of Rhun)", in Evans, E. Vincent (ed.), Y Cymmrodor, vol. XXVIII, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 209–222. For example, the Marwnad Rhun attributed to Taliesin tells of a campaign in the north by Rhun ap Maelgwn Gwynedd and his death there in battle. Morris-Jones notes that the particulars of the marwnad are everywhere consistent with the historical record and nowhere inconsistent, and likely a product of the 6th century, a view shared by notable skeptics such as Thomas Stephens.
28. Hoüard, David, ed. (1776), "Regiam Majestatem", Traités sur les Coutumes Anglo-Normandes, vol. II, Rouen, pp. 38–269. See, for example CAPUT XXXVI, and elsewhere. Page 164 shows Item 7 of Chapter 36, "7 Item, LE CRO, & Galnes & Enach ...".
29. Davies 2008, p. 714.
30. Davies 2008, p. 186.
31. Davies 2008, p. 388.
32. "Bangor Uni: When did Welsh identity in Wales begin?". BBC News. 2019-10-19. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
33. "History and Development of the Welsh Language in the Courts". Her Majesty's Courts Service website. Her Majesty's Courts Service. 11 June 2007. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
34. Davies 2008, p. 450.
35. Davies 1994, p. 86.
36. "Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, the First and Last King of Wales". Historic UK. Retrieved 2022-02-08.
37. Thomas 1959. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThomas1959 (help)
38. Maund 1991, p. 67.
39. Maund 2006, pp. 87–97.
40. Davies 1994, p. 100.
41. Davies 2000, pp. 5–7, 21.
42. Davies 1994, p. 128.
43. Davies 1993, p. 133.
44. "Kings and Princes of Wales". Historic UK. Retrieved 2022-02-08.
45. "BBC Wales - History - Themes - Chapter 8: The end of Welsh independence". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-07-06.
46. "BBC - History - British History in depth: Wales: A Culture Preserved". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-08-11.
47. Davies 1993, p. 163.
48. Davies 1993, p. 183.
49. "OwainGlyndwr - Parliaments". www.owain-glyndwr.wales. Retrieved 2022-02-08.
50. "Welsh assembly renamed Senedd Cymru/Welsh Parliament". BBC News. 2020-05-06. Retrieved 2022-06-13.
51. Jones, Moya (2008-01-01). "Framing Welsh identity". Textes et contextes (in French) (1). ISSN   1961-991X.
52. "Roughly the size of Wales: four reflections on Welsh identity in the 21st century". the Guardian. 2022-03-01. Retrieved 2022-07-29.
53. Davies 2008.
54. Davies 2008, p. 599.
55. Jones, J.G. (1 January 1990). "Alfred Thomas's National Institution (Wales) Bills of 1891-92". Welsh History Review. 15 (1): 218. Retrieved 23 June 2020.
56. "Wales | Vol, V no. 8/9 | 1945 | Cylchgronau Cymru - Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru" (in Welsh). National Library of Wales . Retrieved 4 December 2020.
57. Davies 1993, p. 593.
58. "BBC Wales - History - Themes - Chapter 22: A new nation". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-07-18.
59. "Epynt: A lost community". www.nfu-cymru.org.uk. Retrieved 2022-07-19.
60. George 2001.
61. "NDAD | Welsh Office". UK: The National Archives. Archived from the original on 2007-11-19. Retrieved 2010-12-29.
62. "The Constitution Series: 1 – Wales in the United Kingdom" (PDF). National Assembly for Wales. July 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
63. "History of devolution". senedd.wales. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
64. "The Welsh language Act of 1967". BBC. 26 July 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
65. Powys, Betsan (12 January 2010). "The long Welsh walk to devolution". BBC News website. BBC. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
66. "Countries within a country". 10 Downing Street website. 10 Downing Street. 10 January 2003. Archived from the original on 9 September 2008. Retrieved 5 November 2010. The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
67. "UN report causes stir with Wales dubbed 'Principality'". WalesOnline website. Media Wales Ltd. 3 July 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010. ... the Assembly's Counsel General, John Griffiths, [said]: "I agree that, in relation to Wales, Principality is a misnomer and that Wales should properly be referred to as a country.
68. "Wales.com FAQs". Wales.com website. Welsh Government. 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2015.
69. Bogdanor, Vernon (1995). The Monarchy and the Constitution. London: Oxford University Press. p. 52. ISBN   978-0-19-827769-9 . Retrieved 5 November 2010. In his autobiography, the Duke of Windsor complained that, as Prince of Wales, there was 'no specific routine job in the sense, for example, that a vice-president has a job ... Though I was next in line to the Throne, with all that position implied, I actually possessed no formal state duties or responsibilities.' 'This constitutional vacuum', Jonathan Dimbleby, biographer of the Prince of Wales, has noted, 'was not an oversight, but documentary evidence of the peculiar position that the heir apparent occupies; there is no formal "role", except to wait.'
70. "StackPath". www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
71. "English people living in Wales tilted it towards Brexit, research finds". The Guardian. 22 September 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
72. "History of devolution". senedd.wales. Retrieved 2022-01-31.
73. "Aims//Our History". Plaid Cymru. Archived from the original on 2016-04-03. Retrieved 2016-03-22.
74. Pitt, Ellie (6 November 2020). "Thousands join YesCymru and say "Westminster isn't working for Wales"". ITV News. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
75. Harries, Robert (8 November 2020). "The rise of Yes Cymru and why people are joining in their thousands". WalesOnline. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
76. Henry, Graham (2014-04-19). "Wales says no to Scottish independence: our exclusive YouGov poll". WalesOnline. Retrieved 2022-05-16.
77. "Savanta ComRes Wales Voting Intention – 29 April 2021" (PDF).
78. Davies 2014, pp. 1, 4.
79. Davies 2014, p. 6.
80. Davies 2014, p. 19.
81. Davies 2014, pp. 37, 39.
82. Davies 2014, p. 117, 120, 122–123.
83. "Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011 | Law Wales". law.gov.wales. Retrieved 2022-02-03.
84. "First Welsh law 'for 600 years'". ITV News. 2012-11-12. Retrieved 2022-02-03.
85. Davies 2014, pp. 117, 121.
86. Davies 2014, p. 122–123.
87. "St David's Day celebration traditions". VisitWales. Retrieved 2022-07-29.
88. "St David (?-589)". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
89. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. Vol. 29. 2003. p. 134. ISBN   978-0-852-29961-6.
90. "Samuel Pepys' Diary 1667". Pepys.info. Archived from the original on 28 January 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2013.
91. Simpson, Jacqueline and Steve Roud (2000), Oxford Dictionary of English Folklore, Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 307–8.
92. eisteddfod. Merriam-Webster dictionary. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
93. History of the Welsh in Minnesota, Foreston, and Lime Springs, Iowa (1895). Translated by Davies, Martha A. Wymore, Nebraska: Great Plains Welsh Heritage Project. 2015.
94. Harper, Douglas (2001–2011). "Eisteddfod". Online Etymological Dictionary. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
95. Hywel Teifi Edwards (2015), The Eisteddfod, pages 5–6.
96. "The National Eisteddfod of Wales". British Heritage. Retrieved 2022-08-11.
97. Davis, Dai. "Y Ddraig Goch – The Red Dragon". welshflag.org. Archived from the original on 9 August 2012.
98. "The dragon and war". BBC Cymru Wales website. BBC. 2010. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
99. "Red Dragon of Wales". www.maryjones.us. Retrieved 2022-08-12.
100. Williams 1959.
101. "Wales history: Why is the red dragon on the Welsh flag?". BBC News. 2019-07-06. Retrieved 2022-02-23.
102. WalesOnline (2004-09-15). "Flying the flag to remember Glyndwr". WalesOnline. Retrieved 2022-08-12.
103. "BBC Wales - History - Themes - Welsh flag: Banner of Owain Glyndwr". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2022-07-29.
104. Davies 2008, p. 189.
105. UK 2005 – The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (PDF). Office for National Statistics. 2004. pp. 2 & 30. ISBN   978-0-11-621738-7 . Retrieved 10 February 2012.
106. "Cardiff then and now: 60 years as capital city of Wales". BBC News. 2015-12-21. Retrieved 2022-02-10.
107. "The Changing Face of Wales: How Welsh do you feel?". BBC News. 2019-03-07. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
108. "Welsh National Anthem". wales.com. Welsh Government. 2014. Retrieved 24 May 2014. Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau gradually became accepted as Wales' national anthem – though to this day, it has no official status as such.
109. "Welsh anthem – The background to Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau". Wales history. BBC Cymru Wales. 1 December 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
110. "Jeremy Vine On 5's tweet - "Yma o Hyd, a Welsh-language single released in 1983, has hit the top of the charts after football fans started singing it at Welsh international games. The singer, songwriter Dafydd Iwan, tells us what it's like to top the charts and why it's is so special. #JeremyVine " - Trendsmap". www.trendsmap.com. Retrieved 2022-06-14.
111. "Yma o Hyd: the defiant Welsh folk song that's been 1,600 years in the making". the Guardian. 2022-06-02. Retrieved 2022-06-14.
112. Copa90 (2021-12-16). "How football overtook rugby as an expression of Welsh identity". the Guardian. Retrieved 2022-07-29.
113. "Euro 2016: Wales players to get homecoming celebration". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation). 7 July 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
114. "Wales qualify for World Cup 2022 with playoff win over Ukraine – live reaction!". The Guardian. 5 June 2022. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
115. Mitchelmore, Ian (2022-03-28). "The player behind Dafydd Iwan's iconic Yma o Hyd rendition revealed". WalesOnline. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
116. Williams, Glen (2022-06-05). "Gareth Bale leads brilliant rendition of Yma o Hyd after Wales beat Ukraine". WalesOnline. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
117. Andrews 1991, p. 336.
118. Andrews 1991, p. 337.
119. Morgan 2005, p. 434.
120. Howell, David R. (16 April 2014). "Heritage Songs: The Decline of a Cultural Tradition". Nomos Journal. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
121. Schofield, Daniel (10 December 2014). "Welsh rugby chiefs urged to ban Tom Jones' 'Delilah' before matches at Millennium Stadium" . The Independent. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
122. "England prepare for Cardiff with 'Hymns and Arias' rung out during training". The Irish Times. 4 February 2015. Retrieved 30 June 2015.
123. "Politicising national identity: Welsh parties conflate 'Welshness' with their own political ideology". British Politics and Policy at LSE. 2018-01-03. Retrieved 2022-07-30.
124. Davies 1993, p.  3.
125. 2011 Census: First Results for Ethnicity, National Identity, and Religion for Wales (PDF). statistics for Wales. 2012.
126. Davies, Daniel. "How optimistic are people in Wales, BBC survey asks". BBC News. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
127. "YouGov / BBC Survey Results" (PDF). www.yougov.co.uk. 2018. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
128. "Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion in Wales (Census 2021)". GOV.WALES. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
129. "National identity by year and identity". statswales.gov.wales. Retrieved 2022-11-22.
130. "YouGov / The Sunday Times Survey Results" (PDF). YouGov.
131. "How Brexit has changed our national identities and attitudes towards devolution in Wales". Nation.Cymru. 2022-03-04. Retrieved 2022-11-10.
132. "YouGov - UK break up attitudes (Wales)" (PDF). YouGov.
133. "ST. DAVID'S DAY POLL - MARCH 2014" (PDF).
134. "2011 Census: First Results for Ethnicity, National Identity, and Religion for Wales" (PDF).
135. Who identifies as Welsh? (PDF). Joseph Rowntree Foundation. 2014.

Bibliography

• Andrews, David (1991). "Welsh Indigenous! and British Imperial? – Welsh Rugby, Culture, and Society 1890–1914". Journal of Sport History. 18 (3): 335–349. JSTOR   43609763.
• Davies, Janet (2014). The Welsh Language: A History (2 ed.). Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN   978-1-78316-019-8.
• Davies, John (1993). A history of Wales. Internet Archive. London : Allen Lane the Penguin Press. ISBN   978-0-7139-9098-0.
• Davies, John (1994). A History of Wales. London: Penguin Books. ISBN   0-14-014581-8.
• Davies, John, ed. (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN   978-0-7083-1953-6.
• Davies, R. R. (2000). The age of conquest : Wales, 1063-1415. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-820878-5.
• George, W. R. P. (2001). "Lloyd George (Family)". Dictionary of Welsh Biography . National Library of Wales . Retrieved 5 December 2020.
• Jones, Thomas (1959). "GRUFFUDD ap LLYWELYN (died 1063), king of Gwynedd and Powys, and after 1055 king of all Wales". Dictionary of Welsh Biography . National Library of Wales . Retrieved 31 January 2022.
• Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
• Lloyd, John Edward (1911). A History of Wales: From the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest. Vol. I. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. Retrieved 13 June 2023– via Internet Archive.
• Maund, K. L. (1991). Ireland, Wales, and England in the Eleventh Century. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN   978-0-85115-533-3.
• Maund, K. L. (2006). The Welsh Kings: Warriors, Warlords and Princes. Tempus. ISBN   9780752429731.
• Morgan, Gareth (2005). "Rugby and Revivalism: Sport and Religion in Edwardian Wales". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 22 (3): 434–456. doi:10.1080/09523360500064057. S2CID   143995387.
• Rhys, John (1904). Celtic Britain (3rd ed.). London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
• Williams, Ifor (1959). "Gwrtheyrn (Vortigern)". Dictionary of Welsh Biography . National Library of Wales.