Wheel of the Year

Last updated

The Wheel of the Year in the Northern Hemisphere. Some Pagans in the Southern Hemisphere advance these dates six months to coincide with their own seasons. Wheel of the Year.png
The Wheel of the Year in the Northern Hemisphere. Some Pagans in the Southern Hemisphere advance these dates six months to coincide with their own seasons.

The Wheel of the Year is an annual cycle of seasonal festivals, observed by a range of modern pagans, marking the year's chief solar events (solstices and equinoxes) and the midpoints between them. British neopagans crafted the Wheel of the Year in the mid-20th century, combining the four solar events ("quarter days") marked by many European peoples, with the four seasonal festivals ("cross-quarter days") celebrated by Insular Celtic peoples. [1] Different paths of modern Paganism may vary regarding the precise timing of each celebration, based on such distinctions as the lunar phase and geographic hemisphere.

Contents

Observing the cycle of the seasons has been important to many people, both ancient and modern. Modern pagan festivals that rely on the Wheel are based to varying degrees on folk traditions, regardless of actual historical pagan practices. [2] Some Wiccans use the term sabbat ( /ˈsæbət/ ) to refer to each festival. [3]

Origins

Seasonal festival activities of pagan peoples differed across ancient Europe. Among the British Isles, Anglo-Saxons primarily marked the solar stations (solstices and equinoxes), while Insular Celtic peoples marked the four midpoints between them. [4] The four Celtic festivals were known to the Gaels as Beltane (1 May), Lughnasadh (1 August), Samhain (1 November), and Imbolc (1 February).

Influential works such as The Golden Bough (1890) by James George Frazer explored various European seasonal festivals and their possible pagan roots. The Witch-Cult in Western Europe (1921) by Margaret Murray examined reports of the European witch trials, including a 1661 trial record from Forfar, Scotland, where the accused witch (Issobell Smyth) was alleged to attend witches meetings "every quarter" at Candlemas (2 February), Roodmas (3 May), Lammas (1 August), and Hallowmas (1 November). [5] The White Goddess (1948) by Robert Graves suggested that, despite Christianization, the importance of agricultural and social cycles had preserved eight holidays of "the ancient British festal system", consisting of Candlemas (2 February), Lady Day (25 March), May Day (1 May), Midsummer Day (24 June), Lammas (1 August), Michaelmas (29 September), Halloween (31 October), and Christmas (25 December). [6]

The Witches' Cottage, where the Bricket Wood coven celebrated their sabbats (2006) Witches Hut 2006 side view.JPG
The Witches' Cottage, where the Bricket Wood coven celebrated their sabbats (2006)

Two neopagan groups in Britain popularized these seasonal festival calendars in the twentieth century: the Bricket Wood coven, a Wiccan group led by Gerald Gardner, and the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids, a neo-Druidic group led by Ross Nichols. Legend holds that Gardner and Nichols harmonized an eight-fold calendar during a naturist retreat, merging the four solar stations alongside their four midpoints as a unified festival cycle.[ citation needed ] Coordination eventually had the benefit of better aligning celebrations between the two neopagan groups. [7] Gardner's first publications refer to the Celtic festivals as "May eve, August eve, November eve (Hallowe'en), and February eve". [3]

The phrase 'Wheel of the Year' was in use by the mid-1960s to describe an annual cycle of eight observances. [8] Prominent Wiccan Aidan Kelly gave names to the Wiccan summer solstice (Litha) and equinox holidays (Ostara and Mabon) in 1974, which were then promoted by Timothy Zell through his Green Egg magazine. [9] Popularization of these names happened gradually; in her 1978 book Witchcraft For Tomorrow, influential Wiccan author Doreen Valiente did not use Kelly's holiday names, instead simply identifying the solstices and equinoxes ("Lesser Sabbats") by their seasons. [10] Valiente identified the four "Greater Sabbats", or fire festivals, by the names Candlemas, May Eve, Lammas, and Hallowe'en, while also naming their Gaelic counterparts Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasa, and Samhain. [11]

Due to early Wicca's influence on modern paganism and the syncretic adoption of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic motifs, Wheel of the Year festival names in English commonly combine the Celtic names used by Gardner and the Germanic-derived names introduced by Kelly, regardless whether local celebrations are based on those cultures.

Festivals

The eight-armed sun cross is often used to represent the modern pagan Wheel of the Year. Eight-spoked wheel.svg
The eight-armed sun cross is often used to represent the modern pagan Wheel of the Year.
The annual cycle of insolation for the northern hemisphere (Sun energy, shown in blue) with key points for seasons (middle), quarter days (top) and cross-quarter days (bottom) along with months (lower) and Zodiac houses (upper). The cycle of temperature (shown in pink) is delayed by seasonal lag. Phases of the Sun (NHemi).png
The annual cycle of insolation for the northern hemisphere (Sun energy, shown in blue) with key points for seasons (middle), quarter days (top) and cross-quarter days (bottom) along with months (lower) and Zodiac houses (upper). The cycle of temperature (shown in pink) is delayed by seasonal lag.

In many traditions of modern pagan cosmology, all things are considered to be cyclical, with time as a perpetual cycle of growth and retreat tied to the Sun's annual death and rebirth. This cycle is also viewed as a micro- and macrocosm of other life cycles in an immeasurable series of cycles composing the Universe. The days that fall on the landmarks of the yearly cycle traditionally mark the beginnings and middles of the four seasons. They are regarded with significance and host to major communal festivals. These eight festivals are the most common times for community celebrations. [2] [12] [13]

In addition to the quarter and cross-quarter days, other festivals may also be celebrated throughout the year, especially in the context of polytheistic reconstructionism and other ethnic traditions. While festivals of the Wheel are steeped in solar mythology and symbolism, many Wiccan esbats are commonly based on lunar cycles. Together, they represent the most common celebrations in Wiccan-influenced forms of modern paganism, especially in Neopagan witchcraft groups. [12] [13]

Winter Solstice (Midwinter / Yule)

Midwinter, which is marked around 21 December, has been recognized as a significant turning point in the yearly cycle since the late Stone Age. The ancient megalithic sites of Newgrange and Stonehenge, carefully aligned with the winter solstice sunrise and sunset, exemplify this. [14] Although this position in the Wheel of the Year is sometimes referred to by the term "Yule", after the Germanic and later Northern European winter festival of the same name, Yule was not likely celebrated by Germanic heathens at the winter solstice before the Christianisation of the Germanic peoples. Consistent with historical sources, scholar Andreas Nordberg proposes that it occurred instead at the full moon of the lunisolar month following the winter solstice which could range between the 5th of January to the 2nd of February in the Gregorian calendar. [15]

The reversal of the Sun's ebbing presence in the sky symbolizes the rebirth of the solar god and presages the return of fertile seasons.[ citation needed ] From Germanic to Roman tradition, this is the most important time of celebration. [16] [17]

Practices vary, but sacrifice offerings, feasting, and gift giving are common elements of Midwinter festivities. Bringing sprigs and wreaths of evergreenery (such as holly, ivy, mistletoe, yew, and pine) into the home and tree decorating are also common during this time. [16] [18] [19]

In Roman traditions additional festivities take place during the six days leading up to Midwinter. [17]

A name for the festival in neo-druidry is Alban Arthan , [20]

Imbolc (Candlemas)

Imbolc is the traditional Gaelic name for 1 February and traditionally marks the first stirrings of spring. It aligns with the contemporary observance of Groundhog Day. It is time for purification and spring cleaning in anticipation of the year's new life. In Rome, it was historically a shepherd's holiday, [21] while the Gaels associated it with the onset of ewes' lactation, prior to birthing the spring lambs. [22] [23]

For Celtic neopagans, the festival is dedicated to the goddess Brigid, daughter of The Dagda and one of the Tuatha Dé Danann. [23]

In the Reclaiming tradition, this is the traditional time for pledges and rededications for the coming year [24] and for initiation among Dianic Wiccans. [25]

Spring Equinox (Ostara)

Ostara is a name for the spring equinox in some modern pagan traditions. The term is derived from a reconstruction produced by linguist Jacob Grimm of an Old High German form of the Old English Ēostre , a proposed Anglo-Saxon goddess for whom, according to Bede, feasts were held in her eponymous month, which he equated to April in the Julian calendar. [26]

Known as Alban Eilir in strands of neo-druidry, this holiday is the second of three spring celebrations (the midpoint between Imbolc and Beltane), during which light and darkness are again in balance, with light on the rise. It is a time of new beginnings and of life emerging further from the grips of winter. [27]

Beltane (May Eve)

Beltane or May Day, 1 May, is traditionally the first day of summer in Ireland. In Rome the earliest celebrations appeared in pre-Christian times with the festival of Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers, and the Walpurgisnacht celebrations of the Germanic countries. [28]

Since the Christianisation of Europe, a more secular version of the festival has continued in Europe and America, commonly referred to as May Day. In this form, it is well known for maypole dancing and the crowning of the Queen of the May.

Celebrated by many pagan traditions, in neo-druidry this festival recognizes the power of life in its fullness, the greening of the world, youthfulness and flourishing. [29]

Summer Solstice (Midsummer / Litha)

Midsummer, which is marked around 21 June, is one of the four solar holidays and is considered the turning point at which summer reaches its height. Some Wiccan traditions call the festival Litha, a name occurring in Bede's The Reckoning of Time (De Temporum Ratione, eighth century), which preserves a list of the (then-obsolete) Anglo-Saxon names for the months of the early Germanic calendar. Ærra Liða (first or precedingLiða) roughly corresponds to June in the Gregorian calendar, and Æfterra Liða (followingLiða) to July. Bede writes that "Litha means gentle or navigable, because in both these months the calm breezes are gentle and they were wont to sail upon the smooth sea". [30]

In some neo-druid traditions the festival is called Alban Hefin. The sun in its greatest strength is greeted and celebrated on this holiday. While it is the time of greatest strength of the solar current, it also marks a turning point, for the sun also begins its time of decline as the wheel of the year turns. Arguably the most important neo-druidic festival, due to the focus on the sun and its light as a symbol of divine inspiration. Neo-druid groups frequently celebrate this event at Stonehenge. [31]

Lughnasadh (Lammas)

Lughnasadh ( /ˈluːnæsə/ ) is the Gaelic name for a harvest festival held on or around 1 August, while Lammas is an English name. Wiccans mark the holiday by baking a figure of the god in bread and eating it, to symbolize the sanctity and importance of the harvest. Celebrations vary, as not all Pagans are Wiccans. The Irish name Lughnasadh [4] [32] is used in some traditions to designate this holiday. Wiccan celebrations of this holiday are neither generally based on Celtic culture nor centered on the Celtic deity Lugh. This name seems to have been a late adoption among Wiccans. In early versions of Wiccan literature the festival is referred to as August Eve. [33]

The name Lammas (contraction of loaf mass) implies it is an agrarian-based festival and feast of thanksgiving for grain and bread, which symbolises the first fruits of the harvest. [32] [34]

Autumn Equinox (Mabon)

The holiday of the autumnal equinox is known variously among neopagans as Harvest Home, Mabon, the Feast of the Ingathering, Meán Fómhair, An Clabhsúr, or Alban Elfed (in neo-druidry). It is a neopagan festival of thanksgiving for the fruits of the earth and a recognition of the need to share them to secure the blessings of the Goddess and the Gods during the coming winter months. The name Mabon was coined by Aidan Kelly around 1970 as a reference to Mabon ap Modron , a character from Welsh mythology. [35]

Samhain (All Hallows)

Neopagans honoring the dead as part of a Samhain ritual Candelabra and Grave Dirt (58205188).jpg
Neopagans honoring the dead as part of a Samhain ritual

Samhain ( /ˈsɑːwɪn/ ) is the name of a traditional Gaelic festival held around 1 November. The name and date were adopted by Wiccans for one of their four Greater Sabbats. For Wiccans, Samhain is a time to celebrate the lives of those who have passed on, and it often involves paying respect to ancestors, family members, elders of the faith, friends, pets, and other loved ones who have died. Aligned with the contemporary observance of Halloween and Day of the Dead, in some traditions the spirits of the departed are invited to attend the festivities. It is seen as a festival of darkness, which is balanced at the opposite point of the Wheel by the festival of Beltane, which is celebrated as a festival of light and fertility. [36] Many neopagans believe that the veil between this world and the afterlife is at its thinnest point of the year at Samhain, making it easier to communicate with those who have departed. [13]

Some authorities claim the Christian festival of All Hallows Day (All Saints Day) and the preceding evening are appropriations of Samhain by early Christian missionaries to the British Isles. [37] [38]

Practice

Celebration commonly takes place outdoors in the form of a communal gathering.

Dates of celebration

The precise dates on which festivals are celebrated often vary to some degree, as would the related agricultural milestones of the local region. Celebrations may occur on the astrologically precise quarter and cross-quarter days, the nearest full moon, the nearest new moon, or the nearest weekend for contemporary convenience. The festivals were originally celebrated by peoples in the middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Consequently, the traditional timing for seasonal celebrations do not align with the seasons in the Southern Hemisphere or near the equator. Pagans in the Southern Hemisphere often advance these dates by six months to coincide with their own seasons. [13] [39] [40] [41]

Offerings

Romuva ceremony Romuvan ceremony (6).PNG
Romuva ceremony

Offerings of food, drink, various objects, etc. have been central in ritual propitiation and veneration for millennia. Modern pagan practice strongly avoids sacrificing animals in favour of grains, herbs, milk, wines, incense, baked goods, minerals, etc. The exception being with ritual feasts including meat, where the inedible parts of the animal are often burned as offerings while the community eats the rest. [42] [43]

Sacrifices are typically offered to gods and ancestors by burning them. Burying and leaving offerings in the open are also common in certain circumstances. The purpose of offering is to benefit the venerated, show gratitude, and give something back, strengthening the bonds between humans and divine and between members of a community. [42] [44] [45]

Heathen observances

Holidays of the Asatru Alliance, with black text used for main terms, gray text for alternative terms, and purple for minor observances Heathen holidays.png
Holidays of the Ásatrú Alliance, with black text used for main terms, gray text for alternative terms, and purple for minor observances

Heathens may add to the demarcations of the Wheel of the Year with various Days of Remembrance celebrating heroes of the Edda and the Sagas and figures of Germanic history such as Leif Ericson, who explored parts of North America. Heathen organisations using the Wheel of the Year framework for their festival calendar include the Swedish group Samfundet Forn Sed Sverige, the American inclusive group The Troth, and the folkish Ásatrú Alliance. [47] [48] [46]

Narratives

Celtic

It is a misconception in some quarters of the modern pagan community, influenced by the writings of Robert Graves, [49] that historical Celts had an overarching narrative for the entire cycle of the year. While the various Celtic calendars include some cyclical patterns, and a belief in the balance of light and dark, these beliefs vary between the different Celtic cultures. Modern preservationists and revivalists usually observe the four 'fire festivals' of the Gaelic Calendar, and some also observe local festivals that are held on dates of significance in the different Celtic nations. [50] [51]

Slavic

Kolomir - the Slavic example of Wheel of the Year indicating seasons of the year. Four-point and eight-point swastika-shaped wheels were more common. Kolomir00.jpg
Kołomir – the Slavic example of Wheel of the Year indicating seasons of the year. Four-point and eight-point swastika-shaped wheels were more common.

Slavic mythology tells of a persisting conflict involving Perun, god of thunder and lightning, and Veles, the black god and horned god of the underworld. Enmity between the two is initiated by Veles' annual ascent up the world tree in the form of a huge serpent and his ultimate theft of Perun's divine cattle from the heavenly domain. Perun retaliates to this challenge of the divine order by pursuing Veles, attacking with his lightning bolts from the sky. Veles taunts Perun and flees, transforming himself into various animals and hiding behind trees, houses, even people. (Lightning bolts striking down trees or homes were explained as results of this.) In the end Perun overcomes and defeats Veles, returning him to his place in the realm of the dead. Thus the order of the world is maintained. [52] [53] [54]

The idea that storms and thunder are actually divine battle is pivotal to the changing of the seasons. Dry periods are identified as chaotic results of Veles' thievery. This duality and conflict represents an opposition of the natural principles of earth, water, substance, and chaos (Veles) and of heaven, fire, spirit, order (Perun), not a clash of good and evil. The cosmic battle between the two also echoes the ancient Indo-European narrative of a fight between the sky-borne storm god and chthonic dragon.

On the great night (New Year), two children of Perun are born, Jarilo, god of fertility and vegetation and son of the Moon, and Morana, goddess of nature and death and daughter of the Sun. On the same night, the infant Jarilo is snatched and taken to the underworld, where Veles raises him as his own. At the time of the spring equinox, Jarilo returns across the sea from the world of the dead, bringing with him fertility and spring from the evergreen underworld into the realm of the living. He meets his sister Morana and courts her. With the beginning of summer, the two are married bringing fertility and abundance to Earth, ensuring a bountiful harvest. The union of Perun's kin and Veles' stepson brings peace between two great gods, staving off storms which could damage the harvest. After the harvest, however, Jarilo is unfaithful to his wife and she vengefully slays him, returning him to the underworld and renewing enmity between Perun and Veles. Without her husband, god of fertility and vegetation, Morana – and all of nature with her – withers and freezes in the ensuing winter. She grows into the old and dangerous goddess of darkness and frost, eventually dying by the year's end only to be reborn again with her brother in the new year. [52] [53]

Wicca and Druidry

Painted Wheel of the Year from the Museum of Witchcraft, Boscastle Wheel of the Year.JPG
Painted Wheel of the Year from the Museum of Witchcraft, Boscastle

In Wicca, the narrative of the Wheel of the Year traditionally centers on the sacred marriage of the God and the Goddess and the god/goddess duality. In this cycle, the God is perpetually born from the Goddess at Yule, grows in power at the vernal equinox (as does the Goddess, now in her maiden aspect), courts and impregnates the Goddess at Beltane, reaches his peak at the summer solstice, wanes in power at Lammas, passes into the underworld at Samhain (taking with him the fertility of the Goddess/Earth, who is now in her crone aspect) until he is once again born from Her mother/crone aspect at Yule. The Goddess, in turn, ages and rejuvenates endlessly with the seasons, being courted by and giving birth to the Horned God. [13] [55] [56]

Many Wiccan, modern Druids, and eclectic modern pagans incorporate a narrative of the Holly King and Oak King as rulers of the waning year and the waxing year respectively. These two figures battle endlessly with the turning of the seasons. At the summer solstice, the Holly King defeats the Oak King and commences his reign. [57] : 94  After the Autumn equinox the Oak King slowly begins to regain his power as the sun begins to wane. Come the winter solstice the Oak King in turn vanquishes the Holly King. [57] : 137 After the spring equinox the sun begins to wax again and the Holly King slowly regains his strength until he once again defeats the Oak King at the summer solstice. The two are ultimately seen as essential parts of a whole, light and dark aspects of the male God, and would not exist without each other. [13] [58] [59] [60]

The Holly King is often portrayed as a woodsy figure, similar to the modern Santa Claus, dressed in red with sprigs of holly in his hair and the Oak King as a fertility god. [61] [62]

See also

Calendars

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Beltane</span> Gaelic May Day festival

Beltane or Bealtaine is the Gaelic May Day festival, marking the beginning of summer. It is traditionally held on 1 May, or about midway between the spring equinox and summer solstice. Historically, it was widely observed in Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. In Irish the name for the festival day is Lá Bealtaine while the month of May is Mí na Bealtaine, in Scottish Gaelic Latha Bealltainn, and in Manx Gaelic Laa Boaltinn/Boaldyn. Beltane is one of the four main Celtic seasonal festivals—along with Samhain, Imbolc, and Lughnasadh—and is similar to the Welsh Calan Mai.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horned God</span> Deity in Wicca and some forms of Neopaganism

The Horned God is one of the two primary deities found in Wicca and some related forms of Neopaganism. The term Horned God itself predates Wicca, and is an early 20th-century syncretic term for a horned or antlered anthropomorphic god partly based on historical horned deities.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Imbolc</span> Gaelic festival marking the start of spring

Imbolc or Imbolg, also called Saint Brigid's Day, is a Gaelic traditional festival. It marks the beginning of spring, and for Christians, it is the feast day of Saint Brigid, Ireland's patroness saint. Its traditional date is 1 February, about halfway between the winter solstice and the spring equinox. Historically, its traditions were widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Imbolc is one of the four Gaelic seasonal festivals, along with: Beltane, Lughnasadh and Samhain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lammas</span> Christian holiday marking the blessing of First Fruits

Lammas, also known as Loaf Mass Day, is a Christian holiday celebrated in some English-speaking countries in the Northern Hemisphere on 1 August. The name originates from the word "loaf" in reference to bread and "Mass" in reference to the Eucharist. It is a festival in the liturgical calendar to mark the blessing of the First Fruits of harvest, with a loaf of bread being brought to the church for this purpose. Lammastide falls at the halfway point between the summer solstice and the autumn equinox. Christians also have church processions to bakeries, where those working therein are blessed by Christian clergy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Samhain</span> Gaelic festival marking the start of winter

Samhain, Sauin or Oíche Shamhna is a Gaelic festival on 1 November marking the end of the harvest season and beginning of winter or "darker half" of the year. It is also the Irish language name for November. Celebrations begin on the evening of 31 October, since the Celtic day began and ended at sunset. This is about halfway between the autumnal equinox and winter solstice. It is one of the four Gaelic seasonal festivals along with Imbolc, Bealtaine, and Lughnasa. Historically it was widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland, and the Isle of Man. A similar festival is held by the Brittonic Celtic people, called Calan Gaeaf in Wales.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wicca</span> Modern syncretic pagan religion based on white magic, occultism and paganism

Wicca, also known as "The Craft", is a modern pagan, syncretic, earth-centered religion. Considered a new religious movement by scholars of religion, the path evolved from Western esotericism, developed in England during the first half of the 20th century, and was introduced to the public in 1954 by Gerald Gardner, a retired British civil servant. Wicca draws upon ancient pagan and 20th-century hermetic motifs for theological and ritual purposes. Doreen Valiente joined Gardner in the 1950s, further building Wicca's liturgical tradition of beliefs, principles, and practices, disseminated through published books as well as secret written and oral teachings passed along to initiates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lughnasadh</span> Irish holiday and Gaelic harvest festival

Lughnasadh, Lughnasa or Lúnasa is a Gaelic festival marking the beginning of the harvest season. Historically, it was widely observed throughout Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Traditionally it is held on 1 August, or about halfway between the summer solstice and autumn equinox. In recent centuries some of the celebrations have shifted to the Sunday nearest this date. Lughnasadh is one of the four Gaelic seasonal festivals, along with Samhain, Imbolc and Beltane. It corresponds to the Welsh Gŵyl Awst and the English Lammas.

The Celtic calendar is a compilation of pre-Christian Celtic systems of timekeeping, including the Gaulish Coligny calendar, used by Celtic countries to define the beginning and length of the day, the week, the month, the seasons, quarter days, and festivals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Celtic neopaganism</span> Modern paganism based on ancient Celtic traditions

Celtic neopaganism refers to any type of modern paganism or contemporary pagan movements based on the ancient Celtic religion. One approach is Celtic Reconstructionism (CR), which emphasizes historical accuracy in reviving Celtic traditions. CR practitioners rely on historical sources and archaeology for their rituals and beliefs, including offerings to spirits and deities. Language study and preservation are essential, and daily life often incorporates ritual elements. While distinct from eclectic pagan and neopagan witchcraft traditions, there is some overlap with Neo-druidism.

M. Macha NightMare is an American Neopagan witch. She was born in Milford, Connecticut and was one of the founders of the Reclaiming Collective in the 1970s.

Green Egg is a Neopagan magazine published by the Church of All Worlds intermittently since 1968. The Encyclopedia of American Religions described it as a significant periodical.

Modern paganism in the United States is represented by widely different movements and organizations. The largest modern pagan religious movement is Wicca, followed by Neodruidism. Both of these religions or spiritual paths were introduced during the 1950s and 1960s from Great Britain. Germanic Neopaganism and Kemetism appeared in the US in the early 1970s. Hellenic Neopaganism appeared in the 1990s.

The Dynion Mwyn tradition is said by its adherents to be derived from Welsh and Pictish religious sources as well as Druidic and witchcraft magical practices.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Heathen holidays</span> Holidays observed within the modern Pagan movement of Heathenry

In the modern Pagan movement of Heathenry there are a number of holidays celebrated by different groups and individuals. The most widely observed are based on ancient Germanic practices described in historical accounts or folk practices; however, some adherents also incorporate innovations from the 20th and 21st centuries.

The Holly King and Oak King are personifications of the winter and summer in various neopagan traditions. The two kings engage in endless "battle" reflecting the seasonal cycles of the year: not only solar light and dark, but also crop renewal and growth. During warm days of Midsummer the Oak King is at the height of his strength; the Holly King regains power at the Autumn equinox, then his strength peaks during Midwinter, at which point the Oak King is reborn, regaining power at the Spring equinox, and perpetuating the succession.

Lists of holidays by various categorizations.

Rhiannon Ryall is the pseudonym of an English-born Australian Wiccan who achieved notoriety for her controversial claims regarding the existence of a group of Wiccans living in England's West Country during the 1940s. These claims were first publicised in 1993 when the English company Capall Bann published Ryall's West Country Wicca: A Journal of the Old Religion, in which she made the claims that when growing up along the borders between the English counties of Devon and Somerset, she was initiated into a local Wiccan tradition that many of the people in the surrounding villages were members of. Claiming that they were "pre-Gardnerian", she asserted that her family had not been Wiccan, and as such she was not a hereditary witch, but that aged sixteen, she, like many other boys and girls who were the same age, were taken to the female "Elders of the village" who taught them about the Craft.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neopaganism in South Africa</span>

Neopaganism in South Africa is primarily represented by the traditions of Wicca, Neopagan witchcraft, Germanic neopaganism and Neo-Druidism. The movement is related to comparable trends in the United States and Western Europe and is mostly practiced by White South Africans of urban background; it is to be distinguished from folk healing and mythology in local Bantu culture.

The Dun Ailline Druid Brotherhood is a pagan organization for followers of the Celtic Neopaganism based on Spain in 2010, which supports the practice of a type of Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism called Druidism, centered on the Celtic culture of Ireland, and whose principal deities are known as the Tuatha Dé Danann. Its members consider themselves practitioners of a European native religion and they call themselves creidim, a concept of Irish origin.

A magical alphabet, or magickal alphabet, is a set of letters used primarily in ceremonial magic ('magick'), occult practices, and esoteric traditions. These alphabets serve various purposes, including encoding secret messages, conducting rituals, creating amulets or talismans, casting spells, and invoking spiritual entities. Several magical alphabets, including the Celestial Alphabet, Malachim, and Transitus Fluvii, are based on the Hebrew alphabet, which itself has a long history of use in mystical and magical contexts.

References

  1. ↑ Williams, Liz (29 July 2013). "Paganism, part 3: the Wheel of the Year". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
  2. 1 2 Harvey, Graham (1994). "The Roots of Pagan Ecology". Journal of Contemporary Religion. 9 (3): 38–41. doi:10.1080/13537909408580720.
  3. 1 2 Gardner, Gerald (1954). Witchcraft Today. p. 147.
  4. 1 2 Hutton, Ronald (8 December 1993), The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles, Oxford, Blackwell, pp. 337–341, ISBN   0-631-18946-7
  5. ↑ Kinloch, George Ritchie. Reliquiae Antiquae Scoticae. Edinburgh, 1848.
  6. ↑ Robert Graves, The White Goddess, New York: Creative Age Press, 1948. Published in London by Faber & Faber.
  7. ↑ Lamond, Frederic (2004), Fifty Years of Wicca, Sutton Mallet, England: Green Magic, pp. 16–17, ISBN   0-9547230-1-5
  8. ↑ Glass, Justine (1965). Witchcraft, the Sixth Sense—and Us. London: Neville Spearman. p. 98.
  9. ↑ Kelly, Aidan. About Naming Ostara, Litha, and Mabon. Including Paganism. Patheos. Accessed 8 May 2019.
  10. ↑ Beckett, John. Enough With the Mabon Hate! Under the Ancient Oaks. Patheos. 11 Sep 2018.
  11. ↑ Valiente, Doreen. 1978. Witchcraft For Tomorrow. London: Robert Hale Limited.
  12. 1 2 Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory (2006). "Book III: Wheel of the Year". In Kirsten Dalley and Artemisia (ed.). Creating Circles & Ceremonies: Rituals for All Seasons And Reasons. Book-Mart Press. p. 192. ISBN   1-56414-864-5.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Drury, Nevill (2009). "The Modern Magical Revival: Esbats and Sabbats". In Pizza, Murphy; Lewis, James R (eds.). Handbook of Contemporary Paganism. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. pp. 63–67. ISBN   9789004163737.
  14. ↑ Johnson, Anthony (2008). Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma. Thames & Hudson. pp. 252–253. ISBN   978-0-500-05155-9.
  15. ↑ Nordberg, Andreas (2006). "Jul, disting och förkyrklig tideräkning". Acta Academiae Regiae Gustavi Adolphi. 91: 155–156.
  16. 1 2 Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory (2006). "7. Yule (Winter Solstice)". Creating Circles & Ceremonies: Rituals for All Seasons And Reasons. Career Press. pp. 250–252. ISBN   1-56414-864-5.
  17. 1 2 Gagarin, Michael (2010). "S". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome: Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 231. ISBN   978-0-19517-072-6.
  18. ↑ Selbie, John A. (1914). "Gifts (Greek and Roman)". In Hastings, James (ed.). Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 6. New York; Edinburgh: Charles Scribner's Sons; T. & T. Clark. p. 212.
  19. ↑ Harvey, Graham (2000). "1: Celebrating the Seasons". Contemporary Paganism: Listening People, Speaking Earth. NYU Press. pp. 6–8. ISBN   0-8147-3549-5.
  20. ↑ "Winter Solstice - Alban Arthan". Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids. 10 January 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
  21. ↑ Plutarch. Life of Caesar. Parallel Lives. Vol.  Alexander and Caesar.
  22. ↑ Chadwick, Nora K.; Cunliffe, Barry (1970). The Celts. Harmondsworth: Penguin. p. 181. ISBN   0-14-021211-6.
  23. 1 2 Rabinovitch, Shelley T.; Lewis, James R. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism. Citadel Press. pp. 232–233. ISBN   0-8065-2407-3.
  24. ↑ Starhawk (1979). The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess (1989 revised ed.). New York, New York: Harper and Row. pp.  7–186, 246. ISBN   0-06-250814-8.
  25. ↑ Budapest, Zsuzsanna E. (1980). The Holy Book of Women's Mysteries. Wingbow Press. ISBN   0-914728-67-9.
  26. ↑ Sermon, Richard (3 April 2022). "Eostre and the Matronae Austriahenae". Folklore. 133 (2): 139–157. doi:10.1080/0015587X.2021.1959143. ISSN   0015-587X. S2CID   249536135.
  27. ↑ "Deeper into Alban Eilir". Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
  28. ↑ Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon; Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory (2006). "Book III: Wheel of the Year". In Kirsten Dalley and Artemisia (ed.). Creating Circles & Ceremonies: Rituals for All Seasons And Reasons. Book-Mart Press. pp. 203–206. ISBN   1-56414-864-5.
  29. ↑ "Deeper Into Beltane". Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
  30. ↑ Beda, Venerabilis (1999). Bede, the reckoning of time. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 54. ISBN   9781846312663.
  31. ↑ "Deeper into Alban Hefin". Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2019.
  32. 1 2 Starhawk (1979, 1989) The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess. New York, Harper and Row ISBN   0-06-250814-8 pp.191-2 (revised edition)
  33. ↑ "Gardnerian Book of Shadows: The Sabbat Rituals: August Eve". www.sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
  34. ↑ "Lammas (n.)". etymonline.com. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
  35. ↑ Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon Zell-Ravenheart & Morning Glory (2006). Creating circles & ceremonies : rituals for all seasons & reasons. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books. p. 227. ISBN   1564148645.
  36. ↑ Starhawk (1979, 1989) The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess. New York, Harper and Row ISBN   0-06-250814-8 pp.193-6 (revised edition)
  37. ↑ Smith, Bonnie G. (2004). Women's History in Global Perspective. University of Illinois Press. p. 66. ISBN   978-0-252-02931-8 . Retrieved 14 December 2015. The pre-Christian observance obviously influenced the Christian celebration of All Hallows' Eve, just as the Taoist festival affected the newer Buddhist Ullambana festival. Although the Christian version of All Saints' and All Souls' Days came to emphasize prayers for the dead, visits to graves, and the role of the living assuring the safe passage to heaven of their departed loved ones, older notions never disappeared.
  38. ↑ Roberts, Brian K. (1987). The Making of the English Village: A Study in Historical Geography. Longman Scientific & Technical. ISBN   978-0-582-30143-6 . Retrieved 14 December 2015. Time out of time', when the barriers between this world and the next were down, the dead returned from the grave, and gods and strangers from the underworld walked abroad was a twice- yearly reality, on dates Christianised as All Hallows' Eve and All Hallows' Day.
  39. ↑ Hume, Lynne (1997). Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN   9780522847826.
  40. ↑ Vos, Donna (2002). Dancing Under an African Moon: Paganism and Wicca in South Africa. Cape Town: Zebra Press. pp. 79–86. ISBN   9781868726530.
  41. ↑ Bodsworth, Roxanne T (2003). Sunwyse: Celebrating the Sacred Wheel of the Year in Australia. Victoria, Australia: Hihorse Publishing. ISBN   9780909223038.
  42. 1 2 Thomas, Kirk. "The Nature of Sacrifice". Cosmology. Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid Fellowship. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  43. ↑ Bradbury, Scott (1995). "Julian's Pagan Revival and the Decline of Blood Sacrifice". Phoenix. 49 (4 (Winter)): 331–356. doi:10.2307/1088885. JSTOR   1088885.
  44. ↑ Krasskova, Galina; Wodening, Swain (forward) (2005). Exploring the northern tradition: A guide to the gods, lore, rites, and celebrations from the Norse, German, and Anglo-Saxon traditions. Franklin Lakes, NJ: New Page Books. ISBN   9781435658943.
  45. ↑ Meuli 1946
  46. 1 2 "Runic Era Calender". asatru.org. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  47. ↑ "Årets högtider, Samfundet Forn Sed Sverige". www.samfundetfornsed.se. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  48. ↑ "Asatru Holidays - The Troth - Inclusive Asatru and Heathenry". thetroth.org. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
  49. ↑ Hutton, Ronald (1993). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. p. 145. ISBN   0-631-18946-7.
  50. ↑ Bonewits, Isaac (2006). Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, New York: Kensington Publishing Group. pp. 179, 183–4, 128–140. ISBN   0-8065-2710-2.
  51. ↑ McColman, Carl (2003). Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom. Alpha Press. pp. 12, 51. ISBN   0-02-864417-4.
  52. 1 2 Leeming, David (2005). "A-Z Entries". The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. p.  360. ISBN   0-19-515669-2.
  53. 1 2 Hlobil, Karel (2009). "Chapter Eleven:Slavic Mythology". Before You. Insomniac Press. ISBN   978-1-92-658247-4.
  54. ↑ Lyle, Emily (2008). "Time and the Indo-European Gods in the Slavic Context" (PDF). Studia Mythologica Slavica . 11: 115–126. doi: 10.3986/sms.v11i0.1691 .
  55. ↑ Vivianne Crowley (1989). Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age. London: Aquarian Press. pp. 162–200. ISBN   9780850307375.
  56. ↑ Starhawk (1999). The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess: 20th Anniversary Edition . San Francisco: HarperOne. pp.  197–213. ISBN   9780062516329.
  57. 1 2 Farrar, Janet & Stewart Farrar; with line illustrations by Stewart; Farrar, photographs by Ian David & Stewart (1984). A witches bible. New York: Magickal Childe. ISBN   093970806X.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. ↑ Farrar, Janet and Stewart (1988). Eight Sabbats for Witches, revised edition. Phoenix Publishing. ISBN   0-919345-26-3.
  59. ↑ Joanne Pearson (2002). A Popular Dictionary of Paganism. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. p. 80. ISBN   9780700715916.
  60. ↑ Carl McColman (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Paganism. Indianapolis, IN: Alpha. p. 121. ISBN   9780028642666.
  61. ↑ Raven Grimassi (2000). Encyclopedia of Wicca & Witchcraft. St Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 219. ISBN   9781567182576.
  62. ↑ Wigington, Patti. "The Legend of the Holly King and the Oak King". paganwiccan.about.com. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.