Languages of the Soviet Union

Languages of Soviet Union
Languages of Soviet Union
Official	Russian
Regional	Armenian, Azerbaijani, Belarusian, Estonian, Georgian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Latvian, Lithuanian, Moldovan (Romanian), Tajik, Turkmen, Ukrainian, Uzbek
Minority	Several minority languages. See distribution and status section for a full list.
Foreign	English, German

Last updated March 23, 2024

The languages of the Soviet Union consist of hundreds of different languages and dialects from several different language groups.

In 1922, it was decreed that all nationalities in the Soviet Union had the right to education in their own language. The new orthography used the Cyrillic, Latin, or Arabic alphabet, depending on geography and culture. After 1937, all languages that had received new alphabets after 1917 began using the Cyrillic alphabet. This way, it would be easier for linguistic minorities to learn to write both Russian and their native language. In 1960, the school educational laws were changed and teaching became more dominated by Russian.^{[ citation needed ]} Moreover, the Armenian and Georgian, as well as the Baltic Soviet Socialist Republics were the only Soviet republics to maintain their writing systems (Armenian, Georgian and Latin alphabets respectively).

Language policy

Background

Before the Bolshevik Revolution, Russian was the official language for the Russian Empire, with the exception of a few permitted languages in autonomous regions as Poland, Finland, and the Baltic provinces. Regional languages were discouraged or forbidden, as was the case of Ukrainian between 1876 and 1905. There was no explicit plan to enable non-Russians to learn Russian, and there was no possibility for other ethnic groups to develop their own culture and language.

In this period, some individual efforts developed written forms for some of these languages, but they had limited effect and they were focused on missionary activities. In the case of languages with written tradition, as Armenian, Georgian, Turkic languages of Central Asia, and Tajik, their writing system continued being used, but mainly in connection with religious education.

Soviet language policy

In 1914 Vladimir Lenin was opposed to the idea of a compulsory or official state language.^[1] Equality of all peoples and of all languages was a commitment made by Lenin and his associates before and after the October Revolution.^[2] As a result no single language was designated for official use in the Soviet Union and the existence of the spoken languages of the national minorities was guaranteed. Everyone had the right to use their own language, both in private and public, as well as in correspondence with officials and while giving testimony in court.^[2] The USSR was a multilingual state, with around 130 languages spoken natively.^[2] Discrimination on the basis of language was illegal under the Soviet Constitution, though the status of its languages differed.

However, the Soviet Union faced the problem of unifying the country, and for that reason, Russian was selected as the common language to facilitate communication between members of different ethnic groups.^[2]

In 1975, Brezhnev said "under developed socialism, when the economies in our country have melted together in a coherent economic complex; when there is a new historical concept—the Soviet people—it is an objective growth in the Russian language's role as the language of international communications when one builds Communism, in the education of the new man! Together with one's own mother tongue one will speak fluent Russian, which the Soviet people have voluntarily accepted as a common historical heritage and contributes to a further stabilization of the political, economic and spiritual unity of the Soviet people."^{[ This quote needs a citation ]}

Developing writing systems

Few of the languages of the Soviet state had written forms. One of the first priorities of the Soviet state was the creation of writing systems and the development of literacy programs. New or modified writing systems were adopted for over half of the languages spoken in the territory during the early Post-revolutionary years.^[2] In some particular cases, preparatory work was required before the creation of an orthography due to the lack of previous linguistic analysis, as in the case of languages of the Far North.

When a language already had a writing system, there were attempts for making it easier to learn and accessible. As part of this policy, in 1918 Russian orthography was simplified removing orthographic distinctions without phonetic counterpart.^[3] Phonemic or close to phonemic orthographies weren't modified, such as Armenian, Georgian, or Chuvash.^[2]

Writing systems based on the Arabic script caused major problems because they were poorly adapted to indicate phonemic differences that are found in Turkic languages or North-East Caucasian languages. A first attempt tried to create a simplified form of Arabic script. However, the task was abandoned. Instead, the Latin alphabet was used for all languages of the Soviet Union without a traditional alphabetical writing system, avoiding the impression that the policy was a Russification attempt.^[2]

Written forms were developed for several languages with a very small number of speakers, such as the Finno-Ugric languages Karelian, Veps, and Sámi. However, many of these writing systems had a short life. In the case of Itelmen, never was put into practical use. Other languages that received their writing systems during the 1920s and early 1930s kept using them, such as Nanai, Nivkh, Koryak, Chuckchi, Khanty, and Mansi.^[2]

Distribution and status

East Slavic languages (Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian) dominated in the European part of the Soviet Union, the Baltic languages Lithuanian and Latvian, and the Finnic language Estonian were used next to Russian in the Baltic region, while Moldovan (the only Romance language in the union) was used in the southwest region. In the Caucasus alongside Russian there were Armenian, Azeri and Georgian. In the Russian far north, there were several minority groups who spoke different Uralic languages; most of the languages in Central Asia were Turkic with the exception of Tajik, which is an Iranian language.

Although the USSR did not have de jure an official language over most of its history, until 1990,^[4] and Russian was merely defined as the language of interethnic communication (Russian : язык межнационального общения), it assumed de facto the role of official language.^[5] For its role and influence in the USSR, see Russification.

On a second level were the languages of the other 14 Union Republics. In line with their de jure status in a federal state, they had a small formal role at the Union level (being e.g. present in the Coat of arms of the USSR and its banknotes) and as the main language of its republic. Their effective weight, however, varied with the republic (from strong in places like in Armenia to weak in places like in Byelorussia), or even inside it.^{[ citation needed ]}

Of these fourteen languages, two are often considered varieties of other languages: Tajik of Persian, and Moldovan of Romanian. Strongly promoted use of Cyrillic in many republics however, combined with lack of contact, led to the separate development of the literary languages. Some of the former Soviet republics, now independent states, continue to use the Cyrillic alphabet at present (such as Kyrgyzstan), while others have opted to use the Latin alphabet instead (such as Turkmenistan and Moldova – although the unrecognized Transnistria officially uses the Cyrillic alphabet).

The Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union and other subdivision of the USSR lacked even this de jure autonomy, and their languages had virtually no presence at the national level (and often, not even in the urban areas of the republic itself). They were, however, present in education (although often only at lower grades).^{[ citation needed ]}

Some smaller languages with very dwindling small communities, like Livonian, were neglected, and weren't present either in education or in publishing.^{[ citation needed ]}

Several languages of non-titular nations, like German, Korean or Polish, although having sizable communities in the USSR, and in some cases being present in education and in publishing, were not considered to be Soviet languages. On the other hand, Finnish, although not generally considered a language of the USSR, was an official language of the Karelia and its predecessor as a Soviet republic.^{[ citation needed ]} Also Yiddish and Romani were considered Soviet languages.^{[ citation needed ]}

Languages by family, distribution and status
Language Family	Language	Official in	Distribution	Status^[6]
Indo-European > Slavic > East Slavic	Russian	Soviet Union Russian SFSR	Spoken in all republics	Safe
	Ukrainian	Ukrainian SSR	Ukrainian SSR, Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Estonian SSR, Moldavian SSR, Georgian SSR	Safe
	Belarusian	Byelorussian SSR	Byelorussian SSR, Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Latvian SSR, Lithuanian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Rusyn		Ukrainian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Indo-European > Slavic > West Slavic	Polish		Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Estonian SSR
Indo-European > Slavic > West Slavic	Slovak		Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Georgian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Indo-European > Slavic > South Slavic	Bulgarian		Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Indo-European > Baltic	Latvian	Latvian SSR	Latvian SSR	Safe
	Latgalian		Latvian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Lithuanian	Lithuanian SSR	Lithuanian SSR	Safe
Indo-European > Germanic > North Germanic	Norwegian		Russian SSR
Indo-European > Germanic > North Germanic	Swedish		Estonian SSR, Ukrainian SSR	(Estonian Swedish) Critically Endangered
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic	German	Volga German ASSR	Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Kazakh SSR
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic > High German	Yiddish	Jewish AO	Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Indo-European > Germanic > West Germanic > North Sea Germanic	Plautdietsch		Kazakh SSR
Indo-European > Romance > Romanian	Moldovan (Romanian)	Moldavian ASSR Moldavian SSR	Moldavian SSR, Ukrainian SSR	Safe
Indo-European > Romance > Italo-Western	Italian		Ukrainian SSR
Indo-European > Albanian	Albanian		Ukrainian SSR
Indo-European > Hellenic > Attic-Ionic	Pontic Greek		Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Armenian SSR, Kazakh SSR	Definitely Endangered
Indo-European > Armenian	Eastern Armenian	Armenian SSR Nagorno-Karabakh AO	Armenian SSR	Safe
Indo-European > Armenian	Western Armenian		Armenian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Indo-European > Armenian & Romani	Lomavren		Armenian SSR	Critically Endangered
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan > Romani	Baltic Romani		Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Latvian SSR, Lithuanian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Sinte Romani		Kazakh SSR
	Northern Vlax Romani		Ukrainian SSR, Moldovian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Northern Balkan Romani		Ukrainian SSR, Moldovian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Southern Central Romani		Ukrainian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Indo-European > Indo-Aryan	Parya		Tajik SSR, Uzbek SSR	Definitely Endangered
Indo-European > Iranian > West Iranian	Tajik	Tajik SSR	Tajik SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Bukharian Dialect (Judeo-Tajik)		Tajik SSR, Uzbek SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Kurmanji (Northern Kurdish)		Azerbaijan SSR, Russian SSR, Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR,	Definitely Endangered
	Tat	Dagestan ASSR	Azerbaijan SSR, Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Juhuri (Judeo-Tat)		Azerbaijan SSR, Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Talysh		Azerbaijan SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Scythian	Ossetian	North Ossetian ASSR South Ossetian AO	Georgian SSR, Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Scythian	Yaghnobi		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Scythian/Pamiri	Wakhi		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Indo-European > Iranian > East Iranian > Pamiri	Rushani		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Shughni		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Yazghulami		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Bartangi		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Ishkashimi		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Khufi		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Sanglechi		Tajik SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Kartvelian	Georgian	Georgian SSR	Georgian SSR	Safe
	Kivruli/Gruzinic Dialect (Judeo-Georgian)		Georgian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Svan		Georgian SSR, Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Mingrelian		Georgian SSR, Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Laz		Georgian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Northwest Caucasian	Abkhaz	Abkhaz ASSR	Georgian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Abaza		Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Kabardian (East Circassian)	Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR Karachay-Cherkess AO	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Adyghe (West Circassian)		Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Ubykh		Russian SSR	Extinct
Northeast Caucasian > Nakh	Chechen	Checheno-Ingush ASSR Dagestan ASSR	Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Kazakh SSR, Georgian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Ingush	Checheno-Ingush ASSR	Russian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR, Turkmen SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Bats		Georgian SSR	Severely Endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Avar-Andic	Avar	Dagestan ASSR	Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Kazakh SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Andi		Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Tindi		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Bagvalal		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Akhvakh		Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Karata-Tukita		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Botlikh		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Godoberi		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Chamalal		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Dargin	Dargwa	Dagestan ASSR	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Kaitag		Russian SSR
	Kubachi		Russian SSR
	Itsari		Russian SSR
	Chirag		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Khinalug	Khinalug		Azerbaijan SSR	Definitely Endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Lak	Lak	Dagestan ASSR	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Northeast Caucasian > Lezgic	Archi		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Lezgian	Dagestan ASSR	Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Tabasaran	Dagestan ASSR	Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Aghul		Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Rutul		Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Tsakhur		Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Udi		Russian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Georgian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Kryts		Azerbaijan SSR
	Jek		Azerbaijan SSR
	Budukh		Azerbaijan SSR	Definitely Endangered
Northeast Caucasian > Tsezic	Tsez		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Bezhta		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Hunzib		Russian SSR, Georgian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Khwarshi		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Hinuq		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
Uralic > Balto-Finnic	Estonian	Estonian SSR	Estonian SSR	Safe
	Võro		Estonian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Seto Dialect		Estonian SSR
	Karelian	Karelo-Finnish SSR	Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Finnish	Karelo-Finnish SSR	Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR	Safe
	Ingrian		Russian SSR, Karelo-Finnish SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Kazakh SSR	Severely Endangered
	Ludic		Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR
	Votic		Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Livonian		Latvian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Veps		Karelo-Finnish SSR, Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
Uralic > Sámi	Kildin Sámi		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Ter Sámi		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Skolt Sámi		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Akkala Sámi		Russian SSR	Extinct
Uralic > Permic	Komi-Zyrian	Komi ASSR	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Komi-Permyak	Komi-Permyak Autonomous Okrug	Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Komi-Yazva		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Udmurt	Udmurt ASSR	Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Estonian SSR, Latvian SSR, Kazakh SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Mari	Mari ASSR	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Uralic > Mordvinic	Erzya	Mordovian ASSR	Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
Uralic > Mordvinic	Moksha	Mordovian ASSR	Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Uralic > Samoyedic	Tundra Nenets	Nenets AO Yamalo-Nenets AO	Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Forrest Nenets		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Enets		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Selkup		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Nganasan		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Kamassian		Russian SSR	Extinct
Uralic > Ugric > Khanty	Salekhard (Northern) Khanty		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Surgut(Eastern) Khanty		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Southern Khanty		Russian SSR	Extinct
Uralic > Ugric > Mansi	Central Mansi		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Northern Mansi		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Southern Mansi		Russian SSR	Extinct
Uralic > Ugric	Hungarian		Ukrainian SSR	Safe
Turkic > Oghuric	Chuvash	Chuvash ASSR	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Turkic > Kipchak	Kazakh	Kazakh SSR	Kazakh SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Kyrgyz	Kirghiz SSR	Kirghiz SSR
	Tatar	Tatar ASSR	Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Kirghiz SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Crimean Tatar	Crimean ASSR	Russian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Lithuanian SSR, Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR	Severely Endangered
	Dobrujan Tatar		Ukrainian SSR, Moldavian SSR
	Siberian Tatar		Russian SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
	Bashkir	Bashkir ASSR	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Urum		Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Krymchak		Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Karaim		Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Lithuanian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Nogai	Dagestan ASSR Karachay-Cherkess AO	Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Kumyk	Dagestan ASSR	Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Latvian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Karachay-Balkar	Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR Karachay-Cherkess AO	Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Karakalpak	Karakalpak ASSR	Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR, Turkmen SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Southern Altai		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Fergana		Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR	Extinct
Turkic > Karluk	Uzbek	Uzbek SSR	Uzbek SSR	Safe
	Uighur		Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR, Tajik SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Ili Turki		Kazakh SSR	Critically Endangered
	Chagatai
Turkic > Oghuz	Turkmen	Turkmen SSR	Turkmen SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Azerbaijani	Dagestan ASSR	Azerbaijan SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
	Meskhetian Dialect (Turkish)		Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR, Kirghiz SSR
	Gagauz		Moldavian SSR, Ukrainian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Turkic > Siberian Turkic	Northern Altai		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Khakas	Khakas AO	Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Tuvan	Tuvan ASSR	Russian SSR
	Shor		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Yakut	Yakut ASSR	Russian SSR
	Dolgan		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Chulym		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Tofa		Russian SSR
	Soyot		Russian SSR
Afro-Asiatic > Semitic	Central Asian Arabic		Uzbek SSR, Tajik SSR	Definitely Endangered
Afro-Asiatic > Semitic	Neo-Aramaic		Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR, Azerbaijan SSR	Safe
Mongolic	Buryat	Buryat ASSR	Russian SSR
	Kalmyk	Kalmyk ASSR	Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Oirat		Kirghiz SSR
	Khamnigan Mongol		Russian SSR
	Mongolian		Russian SSR	Potentially Vulnerable
Tungusic	Evenki		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Even		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Nanai		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Negidal		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Kili		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Oroch		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
	Udege		Russian SSR
	Uilta		Russian SSR
	Ulch		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
Chukotko-Kamchatkan	Chukchi	Chukotka AO	Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Koryak		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Alyutor		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
	Kerek		Russian SSR	Extinct
	Itelmen		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
Language Isolate	Nivkh		Russian SSR	Severely Endangered
Yukaghir	Tundra Yukaghir		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
Yukaghir	Southern Yukaghir		Russian SSR	Critically Endangered
Inuit-Aleut	Siberian Yupik		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Aleut		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Naukan		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
	Old Sirenik		Russian SSR	Extinct
Yeniseian	Ket		Russian SSR	Definitely Endangered
Language Isolate	Ainu		Russian SSR	Extinct in Russia, Critically Endangered in Japan
Sino-Tibetan	Dungan		Russian SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR	Endangered/Unsafe
Sino-Tibetan	Taz Dialect (Mandarin)		Russian SSR	Extinct
Koreanic	Koryo-Mar		Uzbek SSR, Kazakh SSR, Turkmen SSR, Russian SSR, Ukrainian SSR

Distribution of Russian in 1989

The Russian language by ethnic group in the USSR in 1989^[7]
Ethnic group	Total (in thousands)	Speakers (in thousands)			Percentage
Ethnic group	Total (in thousands)	L1	L2	Total	L1	L2	Total
Russians	145,155	144,836	219	145,155	99.8	0.2	100
Non-Russian	140,587	18,743	68,791	87,533	13.3	48.9	62.3
Ukrainians	44,186	8,309	24,820	33,128	18.8	56.2	75.0
Uzbeks	16,698	120	3,981	4,100	0.7	23.8	24.6
Belarusians	10,036	2,862	5,487	8,349	28.5	54.7	83.2
Kazakhs	8,136	183	4,917	5,100	2.2	60.4	62.7
Azerbaijanis	6,770	113	2,325	2,439	1.7	34.3	36.0
Tatars	6,649	1,068	4,706	5,774	16.1	70.8	86.8
Armenians	4,623	352	2,178	2,530	7.6	47.1	54.7
Tajiks	4,215	35	1,166	1,200	0.8	27.7	28.5
Georgians	3,981	66	1,316	1,382	1.7	33.1	34.7
Moldovans	3,352	249	1,805	2,054	7.4	53.8	61.3
Lithuanians	3,067	55	1,163	1,218	1.8	37.9	39.7
Turkmens	2,729	27	757	783	1.0	27.7	28.7
Kyrgyz	2,529	15	890	905	0.6	35.2	35.8
Germans	2,039	1,035	918	1,953	50.8	45.0	95.8
Chuvash	1,842	429	1,199	1,628	23.3	65.1	88.4
Latvians	1,459	73	940	1,013	5.0	64.4	69.4
Bashkirs	1,449	162	1,041	1,203	11.2	71.8	83.0
Jews	1,378	1,194	140	1,334	86.6	10.1	96.7
Mordvins	1,154	377	722	1,099	32.7	62.5	95.2
Poles	1,126	323	495	817	28.6	43.9	72.6
Estonians	1,027	45	348	393	4.4	33.9	38.2
Others	12,140	1,651	7,479	9,130	13.6	61.6	75.2
Total	285,743	163,898	68,791	232,689	57.4	24.1	81.4

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Korenizatsiia was an early policy of the Soviet Union for the integration of non-Russian nationalities into the governments of their specific Soviet republics. In the 1920s, the policy promoted representatives of the titular nation, and their national minorities, into the lower administrative levels of the local government, bureaucracy, and nomenklatura of their Soviet republics. The main idea of the korenizatsiia was to grow communist cadres for every nationality. In Russian, the term korenizatsiya (коренизация) derives from korennoye naseleniye. The policy practically ended in the mid-1930s with the deportations of various nationalities.

Education in the Soviet Union was guaranteed as a constitutional right to all people provided through state schools and universities. The education system that emerged after the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922 became internationally renowned for its successes in eradicating illiteracy and cultivating a highly educated population. Its advantages were total access for all citizens and post-education employment. The Soviet Union recognized that the foundation of their system depended upon an educated population and development in the broad fields of engineering, the natural sciences, the life sciences and social sciences, along with basic education.

The Ukrainian alphabet is the set of letters used to write Ukrainian, which is the official language of Ukraine. It is one of several national variations of the Cyrillic script. It comes from the Cyrillic script, which was devised in the 9th century for the first Slavic literary language, called Old Slavonic. In the 10th century, it became used in Kievan Rus' to write Old East Slavic, from which the Belarusian, Russian, Rusyn, and Ukrainian alphabets later evolved. The modern Ukrainian alphabet has 33 letters in total: 21 consonants, 1 semivowel, 10 vowels and 1 palatalization sign. Sometimes the apostrophe (') is also included, which has a phonetic meaning and is a mandatory sign in writing, but is not considered as a letter and is not included in the alphabet.

The Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet is a Cyrillic alphabet designed for the Romanian language spoken in the Soviet Union (Moldovan) and was in official use from 1924 to 1932 and 1938 to 1989.

The modern Gagauz alphabet is a 31-letter Latin-based alphabet modelled on the Turkish alphabet and Azerbaijani. It is used to write the Gagauz language.

The Kyrgyz alphabets are the alphabets used to write the Kyrgyz language. Kyrgyz uses the following alphabets:

The Tajik language has been written in three alphabets over the course of its history: an adaptation of the Perso-Arabic script, an adaptation of the Latin script and an adaptation of the Cyrillic script. Any script used specifically for Tajik may be referred to as the Tajik alphabet, which is written as алифбои тоҷикӣ in Cyrillic characters, الفبای تاجیکی with Perso-Arabic script and alifboji toçikī in Latin script.

The Armenian orthography reform occurred between 1922 and 1924 in Soviet Armenia and was partially reviewed in 1940. Its main features were neutralization of classical etymological writing and the adjustment of phonetic realization and writing.

The Mongolian Latin script was officially adopted in Mongolia in 1931. In 1939, a second version of the Latin alphabet was introduced but not widely used, and was replaced by the Cyrillic script in 1941.

Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the Bulgarian theologians Cyril and Methodius. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia. Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. The creator is Saint Clement of Ohrid from the Preslav literary school in the First Bulgarian Empire.

In the Soviet Union, latinisation or latinization was the name of the campaign during the 1920s and 1930s which aimed to replace traditional writing systems for all languages of the Soviet Union with systems that would use the Latin script or to create Latin-script-based systems for languages that, at the time, did not have a writing system.

The spread of the Latin script has a long history, from its archaic beginnings in Latium to its rise as the dominant writing system in modernity. The ancestors of Latin letters are found in the Phoenician, Greek and Etruscan alphabets. As the Roman Empire expanded in classical antiquity, the Latin script and language spread along with its conquests, and remained in use in Italy, Iberia, and Western Europe after the Western Roman Empire's disappearance. During the early and high Middle Ages, the script was spread by Christian missionaries and rulers, replacing the indigenous writing systems of Central Europe, Northern Europe, and the British Isles.

Derussification is a process or public policy in different states of the former Russian Empire and the Soviet Union or certain parts of them, aimed at restoring national identity of indigenous peoples: their language, culture and historical memory, lost due to Russification. The term may also refer to the marginalization of the Russian language, culture and other attributes of the Russian-speaking society through the promotion of other, usually autochthonous, languages and cultures.

In the USSR, cyrillisation or cyrillization was the name of the campaign from the late 1930s to the 1950s which aimed to replace the writing system based on Latin script, to one based on Cyrillic.

References

↑ Lenin, Vladimir. "Lenin: Is a Compulsory Official Language Needed?". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 2020-12-11.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Comrie, Bernard (1981). The Languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press.
↑ Comrie, B., & Stone, G. (1978). The Russian language since the revolution. Oxford [Eng.]: Clarendon Press.
↑ In early 20th century, there had been a discussion over the need to introduce Russian as the official language of Russian Empire. The dominant view among Bolsheviks at that time was that there is no need for state language. See: "Нужен ли обязательный государственный язык?" by Lenin (1914). Staying with the Lenin's view, not state language was declared in the Soviet state.
In 1990 the Russian language was declared as the official language of USSR and the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. See Article 4 of the Law on Languages of Nations of USSR. Archived 2016-05-08 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)
↑ Bernard Comrie, The Languages of the Soviet Union, page 31, the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9
↑ "UNESCO World Atlas of Languages".
↑ "All-Soviet Census 1989. Population by ethnic group and language". Demoscope Weekly (in Russian).

Sources

Bernard Comrie. The Languages of the Soviet Union. CUP 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9 (hb), ISBN 0-521-29877-6 (pb)
E. Glyn Lewis. Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and Its Implementation. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1971.
Языки народов СССР. 1967. Москва: Наука 5т.

External links

Soviet Language Policy in Central Asia by Mark Dickens

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[1] Lenin, Vladimir. "Lenin: Is a Compulsory Official Language Needed?". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 2020-12-11.

[:0-2] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Comrie, Bernard (1981). The Languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge University Press.

[3] Comrie, B., & Stone, G. (1978). The Russian language since the revolution. Oxford [Eng.]: Clarendon Press.

[4] In early 20th century, there had been a discussion over the need to introduce Russian as the official language of Russian Empire. The dominant view among Bolsheviks at that time was that there is no need for state language. See: "Нужен ли обязательный государственный язык?" by Lenin (1914). Staying with the Lenin's view, not state language was declared in the Soviet state.
In 1990 the Russian language was declared as the official language of USSR and the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. See Article 4 of the Law on Languages of Nations of USSR. Archived 2016-05-08 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian)

[lang-5] Bernard Comrie, The Languages of the Soviet Union, page 31, the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9

[6] "UNESCO World Atlas of Languages".

[7] "All-Soviet Census 1989. Population by ethnic group and language". Demoscope Weekly (in Russian).

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