1946 pacification of villages by PAS NZW

Last updated
Pacification of villages by NZW
Part of Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–46) and Polish-Belarusian ethnic conflict
Pomnik Zaleszany.JPG
Memorial to the victims of the pacification action in Zaleszany
Location Białystok Voivodeship (1945–75)
Deaths79
Perpetrators National Military Union
ConvictedCaptain Romuald Rajs
Lieutenant Kazimierz Chmielowski
Chargesmembership in AK and NZW, assassination of MO functionaries, assaults on the Polish and Soviet Army, attacks on the UB security outposts, killings of civilians, possession of assault weapons [1]

The 1946 pacification of villages by PAS NZW was the killing of 79 Polish nationals of Belarusian ethnicity in Bielsk County, north-eastern Poland, by partisans, members of the Polish Extraordinary Special Actions unit of the National Military Union (Polish : Pogotowie Akcji Specjalnej Narodowego Zjednoczenia Wojskowego (PAS NZW)). The murders took place in the aftermath of World War II.

Contents

In January and February 1946, units of the PAS Special Forces burned down the villages of Zaleszany, Wólka Wygonowska, Zanie, Szpaki, and Końcowizna. [2] They also executed 30 coachmen on 30 January 1945 near Puchały Stare, and a similar number of armed resistors in Zanie on 2 February 1946. [3]

Since 1995, the mass killing of civilians was the subject of official investigation by the government-affiliated Institute of National Remembrance. [2] The inquiry resulted in the publication of a final report in June 2005, summarizing the case. The Commission interviewed a total of 169 persons, [4] and analysed all documents and testimonies dating back to the 1949 show trial of Polish cursed soldiers: Captain Romuald Rajs of the PAS Special Forces, and his co-conspirator and deputy, Lieutenant Kazimierz Chmielowski from NZW. [4]

Among the individuals questioned by IPN were families of victims, as well as former soldiers of the 3rd Brigade of NZW. The IPN closed its official investigation without additional charges filed. Sentences from the Stalinist period had already been carried out. In addition, there had been extrajudicial killings of partisans by governmental authorities during the Polish anti-Communist insurrection. No living perpetrators of the atrocities committed in early 1946 have been identified. [2] The postwar atrocities have continued to receive considerable press coverage by the media. [5] [6] [7]

Background

In November 1944, the National Military Union (Narodowe Zjednoczenie Wojskowe, NZW) was formed out of the National Armed Forces (NSZ) and a portion of the National Military Organization (NOW) which left the largest Polish anti-Nazi organization, the Home Army. [8] The Home Army was disbanded entirely by the order of Gen. Leopold Okulicki on 18 January 1945, [9] due to the Soviet takeover of Poland. Thousands of partisans and underground soldiers were arrested by the NKVD and sent to Soviet Gulag camps. [10] [11] Okulicki was murdered in Moscow. [9]

The annexation of eastern half of the Second Polish Republic by Joseph Stalin was ratified by the new communist authorities in postwar Poland on 16 August 1945, [12] which was followed by mass expulsions of Poles and Belarusians across the new borders. [13]

Mayor Zygmunt Szendzielarz refused to surrender; and recreated the already disassembled Polish 5th Wilno Brigade of Home Army in order to oppose the Soviet occupation of Podlachia (Podlasie) and the Białystok region. Equipped with machine guns and machine pistols, his brigade fought a successful battle with the advancing Red Army and the pro-Soviet Polish People's Army around Miodusy-Dworaki village in Siemiatycze County on 18 August 1945. [14]

Captain Rajs ("Bury") was active in the area of Wilno during the German occupation of Poland. [15] Since 1943, he led the 1st Company of the 3rd Wilno Brigade of Home Army with the rank of Second Lieutenant. [15] After the dissolution of the 5th Brigade, Rajs made contact with Commandant of the National Military Union Okręg III Białystok, Major Jan Szklarek, and moved his LWP platoon under his command. [16] He was promoted to the rank of Captain and became leader of the PAS Special Forces (Pogotowie Akcji Specjalnej) within NZW Białystok. [17] The process of unification of smaller underground units in the area of Wysokie Mazowieckie County, commanded by Kazimierz Chmielowski ("Rekin"; meaning "Shark", in Polish) until December 1945, resulted in the gathering of the largest anti-Soviet partisan group in the region. [18]

Assaults of January and February 1946

Captain Romuald Rajs 01943 "Bury" Romuald Rajs.jpg
Captain Romuald Rajs

By the end of 1945, the NZW III Białystok consolidated most of the local anti-communist underground by absorbing into its own command scattered units of NSZ and NOW. [19] Many former members of resistance left the forest to begin a new life, [20] although for some the return to civilian life was not possible. Both MO and the NKVD had compiled hit lists of anti-communist conspirators from local sources. [21]

By early 1946, the NZW was the only underground organization still capable of active resistance. Their assaults included destruction of MO outposts and Communist Party bureaus, ambushes on special units of UBP, KBW, WP and NKWD; as well as various retaliatory actions. A few local towns were taken over by PAS NZW temporarily. Some police stations were destroyed repeatedly. [22]

In early January 1946, NZW headquarters called a meeting of local commanders. Rajs was given leadership of partisans enrolled by Chmielowski ("Rekin"). His unit, consisting of 228 soldiers, was renamed as the 3rd Wilno Brigade of the NZW PAS. A decision was made to move the entire force to an area around Bielsk Podlaski for further military training. [23]

Actions in Łozice and Hajnówka

On 27 January 1946 the battalion entered Łozice village and approached a gathering of horse-drawn vehicles organized by the local authorities in need of conscripted labour. The partisans requisitioned around 40 carriages and ordered their drivers to go along. [24] Some coachmen mistakenly believed that the uniformed soldiers have belonged to the communist forces. [25] The battalion boarded the carriages and in the same evening rode to the County of Hajnówka. [17] Rajs ordered the attack on Hajnówka where the Polish communist militia as well as some Red Army soldiers returning to the USSR, were stationing. The takeover of Hajnówka was unsuccessful. The farmers with horse-drawn carriages remained with the battalion throughout January as means of transportation even though several failed attempts were made by PAS NZW to replace them with new carriers. [17]

Contrary to opinions disseminated by politicized media in today's Belarus, [6] [26] the single criterion used by PAS NZW in the selection of carriages was their durability and strength; it was not the alleged faith of the actual coachmen, nor their purported Belarusian roots, as revealed by research conducted by the Polish Institute of National Remembrance. The coachmen came to Łozice from about a dozen neighbouring villages because they were ordered to do so by the communist authorities attempting to transport nationalized wood to Orla village. [17] Meanwhile, the relocation of the NZW battalion was planned well ahead. [27]

Pacification of Zaleszczany and Wólka Wygonowska

On 29 January 1946 the battalion arrived in Zaleszany, Hajnówka County, to feed the horses. During a routine document check by the partisans, a Red Army soldier and NKVD informer, Aleksander Zielinko was identified, serving as Communist Party secretary in nearby Suchowolce. [28] All inhabitants were ordered to report to a big house of Dymitr Sacharczuk where they were taken hostage. They were questioned on the whereabouts of suspected collaborator, and Sołtys of Zaleszany, Łukasz Demianiuk who vanished. His 16-year-old son Piotr (already a PPR member) was identified and executed together with Zielinko. Not a single hostage was killed from the gathering at Sacharczuk's house. [29] According to official report released in 2005 by the Institute of National Remembrance, all hostages kept in Sacharczuk's house ran out to safety and survived; they were not persecuted, but the PAS NZW set a number of buildings on fire, and 16 people died in Zaleszany while attempting to hide from the soldiers. [30] The final IPN investigation revealed that the later description of what happened there was falsified by the Stalinist functionaries. [31]

Memorial plaque in Wolka Wygonowska Cerkiew sw. Michala Archaniola w Wolce Wygonowskiej 4.JPG
Memorial plaque in Wólka Wygonowska

The unit led by Rajs ("Bury") departed for the neighbouring village of Wólka Wygonowska. Some farm buildings were set ablaze for refusal to provide assistance. Two local men were shot dead while they were running away from the soldiers: Jan Zinkiewicz and Stefan Babulewicz. Many year later, Zinkiewicz's daughter rationalized that her father ran to save his farm equipment from burning, and that he was not fleeing from them. [32]

Massacre in Puchały Stare

On the following day of 30 January 1946 the command of NZW PAS Brigade arrived in Krasna Wieś village where they arranged the exchange of horse-drawn carriers. [29] Eye-witness Włodzimierz K. from Jagodniki later testified that they arrived in Krasna Wieś ahead of others. Most of the partisan group fell behind. The new coachmen were ordered to wait for them but instead, took their horse-drawn carriages and run away. [33] They were chased through the forest by the platoon led by "Modrzew", caught around Puchały Stare village, arrested, taken away in two groups, and executed as traitors. Years later, the exhumations conducted by the authorities in Puchały on 27 April 1951 revealed that 27 farmers have been killed there and buried in two shallow graves. In 1997 the number was raised to 30. [34] [35] The subsequent 2005 investigation by IPN revealed – based on new evidence – that purported eye-witness of the massacre, Prokop Iwacik, lied in his postwar testimonies, because he could not have possibly been there. [34] Officer "Modrzew" ("Larch" in English) was killed on 16 February 1946; and his true identity remains unknown. [36]

Assault on Szpaki–Zanie

At the end of January 1946 the soldiers of the 3rd Brigade came to Zanie, Podlaskie Voivodeship, to requisition food. One of the partisans, Kazimierz Borkowski, was struck with an axe to the head by a farmer who refused to give in. [37] Rajs, who had already received information in Hajnówka, that ethnic Belarusians who lived in Szpaki–Zanie served as Volksdeutsche under Nazi Germany, [38] gave an order for the "pacification" of the two villages. [39] During his postwar interrogations Rajs informed that the actual order of burning down Zanie, Szpaki and Końcowizna in retaliation for hostile attitude towards NZW, came from his superior Florian Lewicki nom de guerre "Lis" ("Kotwicz"), [40] regional commandant of NZW (real name, Jan Szklarek). [41] The NZW PAS unit consisting of three platoons of about 30 men led by "Rekin" (Chmielowski), "Wiarus", and "Bitny" (J. Boguszewski), was sent to Szpaki–Zanie on 2 February 1946. Rajs was not present. He went with his command to Końcowizna village, [39] where no-one was killed. [42] According to postwar interrogation of Kazimierz Chmielowski ("Rekin"), the NZW troops were fired upon by the locals in Zanie. Later report by the Special Commission from Bielsk Podlaski confirmed that a submachine gun with ammunition was found in one of the burned out buildings. [39] A dozen farmhouses were set on fire and 36 men singled out for collaboration with the enemy were executed by the platoon led by "Rekin". The names of the men to be shot have been secretly obtained by the Armia Krajowa Obywatelska from Bielsk County. Subsequently, both "Wiarus" and "Bitny" (along with "Modrzew") were killed in action on 12 February 1946 in Gmina Ełk. [43]

Chmielowski ("Rekin") is said to have attacked other villages in gmina Kleszczele as well, where some farmhouses where burned. According to Rajs, Chmielowski did it on his own accord, although Chmielowski himself insisted during questioning by the communist interrogators that bullets were fired up into the air. [43] Notably, as many as five alleged pacification actions by "Rekin" were fabricated by the UB interrogators, since the village of Mostek never existed in the Bielsk County as revealed by the IPN investigation. [44]

Trial

On 17 November 1948, Romuald Rajs was captured in Karpacz by Urząd Bezpieczeństwa while on vacation. A month later, his co-conspirator Chmielowski was arrested on 13 December 1948. They were tried in a show trial held at the Białystok movie theatre "Ton", [15] and charged with membership in AK and NZW aiming to overthrow the communist government of Poland, coupled with armed assaults on the Polish Army and the Red Army, the assassination of MO functionaries, attacks on the UB security outposts, the railway guard, as well as assassination of civilians during forced requisitions of property, and possession of assault weapons. Individually, Romuald Rajs was also charged with desertion from the Polish Army. They were executed on 30 December 1949 without material evidence of alleged civilian atrocities, which were obtained by the communist authorities well over a year later, in the spring of 1951. [45] [46] [47] Rajs denied his guilt of the massacres. He was executed on 30 December 1949 in the Białystok prison at the age of 36. Lieutenant Kazimierz Chmielowski was executed on 1 April 1950. [46] [47]

Commemoration

Memorial and tomb of the murdered coachmen in Bielsk-Podlaski Podlaskie - Bielsk Podlaski - Bielsk Podlaski - Wojska Polskiego - Cmentarz Wojenny 08.JPG
Memorial and tomb of the murdered coachmen in Bielsk-Podlaski

In 1970, a memorial plate was installed in Zanie to commemorate the victims of the massacre. [48] The burial place of most of the victims were not confirmed until the 1951 exhumations. Three more bodies were identified by the IPN pathologists in 1997. [34] After the fall of communism, a Committee of the murdered coachmen family members was created, the victims' remains were reburied in Bielsk Podlaski. [6]

Official commemoration ceremonies are being held at anniversaries of the tragedy in Zaleszczany and Bielsk Podlaski. [26] [49] Leaders of the Belarusian minority in Poland view the 1946 massacre as an important traumatic event in post-war history. [6] According to Oleg Latyszonek, a Polish historian of Belarusian ancestry, the massacre led to the Belarusian minority growing more loyal to the Polish communist regime of that time. [26] Some journalists have commented that Polish nationalists attempt to rehabilitate Romuald Rajs as a part of promotion of suppression and continuous abuse of Human Rights, by the right-wing governments, of the Kaczynski brothers. [26] In 1995, the Military Court of Warsaw nullified the 1948 death penalty given to Rajs. [50] [5] [26] His family received a compensation from the Polish state. [26] On February 2, 2012, on the anniversary of the 1946 massacre, the Polish Sejm has introduced a Day of Commemoration of the Cursed soldiers on 1 March. [5] The families of the victims of the massacre have not received any compensations. [6]

A thriller by Polish novelist, Katarzyna Bonda (pl) – who has Belarusian roots – titled Okularnik ("Specky"), part of her detective series about a fictional profiler Sasza Załuska in today's Poland, is inspired by the 1946 Massacres of villages in Podlachia. [51] [52] The book received considerable coverage by the media in Belarus without being translated into Belarusian. [53]

In 2012, the Monument to Orthodox inhabitants of Białystok who were killed and went missing in the years 1939–1956 was erected in Białystok to commemorate Orthodox Christians of the Białystok region who perished during the anticommunist insurrection in 1946. [54]

In 2020, all victims of the massacres were canonised by the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church in a ceremony in Zaleszany, at a monastery whose hegumenia came from a family of survivors. The Divine Liturgy was attended by Archbishops Abel (Popławski) and Grzegorz (Charkiewicz), and Bishop Paweł (Tokajuk). [55]

In 2021, Polish President Andrzej Duda prayed, laid flowers and knelt at the memorial to the victims of the massacre in Zaleszany, after he was invited to visit by local Belarusian residents. [56] [57] He paid tribute to the victims and praised the multicultural heritage of the area, although he did not note who was responsible for the massacre. [57] [58]

Notes

  1. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 6, §: "Wymienionym dowódcom NZW ówczesne organy ścigania zarzuciły po kilkanaście różnych czynów, polegających na przynależności do AK i NZW".
  2. 1 2 3 IPN 2005, pp. 1–2.
  3. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 14, §: "Podczas rozprawy sądowej K. Chmielowski dodał, że we wsi Zanie ludność broniła się strzelając i dlatego 'nasze oddziały odpowiedziały ogniem'.".
  4. 1 2 IPN 2005, p. 8.
  5. 1 2 3 Lajeuskaja, Valiancina (2015). "Дзень выклятых жаўнераў" [Cursed Soldiers Day]. Racyja.com (in Belarusian). Radio Racyja. Archived from the original on 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Maksymiuk, Jan (5 February 2013). "Jakaja ž to pravda na sviêti?" [What's the truth in the world?]. Радыё Свабода (in Belarusian). Radio Svaboda. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  7. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 19, §: "są Polakami wyznania prawosławnego".
  8. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 2, §: "W listopadzie 1944r. nastąpiło połączenie oddziałów Narodowych Sił Zbrojnych i tych oddziałów Narodowej Organizacji Wojskowej, które wycofały się ze struktur Armii Krajowej.".
  9. 1 2 Prof. Jerzy R. Krzyzanowski. "Gen. Leopold Okulicki: the Last C-i-C of the Home Army". Warsaw Uprising 1944. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2016.
  10. ↑ Andrzej Kaczyński (2 October 2004). "Wielkie polowanie: Prześladowania akowców w Polsce Ludowej" [Great hunt: the persecutions of AK soldiers in the People's Republic of Poland]. Rzeczpospolita . No. 232. Archived from the original on 6 November 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  11. ↑ Pałka 2013, p. 25.
  12. ↑ Wettig, Gerhard (2008), Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 47–48, ISBN   978-0-7425-5542-6 See also:U.S. Bureau of the Census (1954). W. Parker Mauldin (ed.). The Population of Poland (Report). Washington. p. 140.
  13. ↑ Jerzy Kochanowski (2001). "Gathering Poles into Poland. Forced Migration from Poland's Former Eastern Territories". In Philipp Ther, Ana Siljak (ed.). Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN   978-0-7425-1094-4.
  14. ↑ Emilian Waluchowski (8 June 2014). "Łupaszka – the cursed soldier". Major Zygmunt Szendzielarz. Pangea Magazine. Archived from the original on 4 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  15. 1 2 3 Krzysztof Błażejewski (25 February 2011). "Nazywali mnie synem bandyty..." [They used to call me the son of a bandit...]. Dziennik toruński (Reprint). Oficyna Wydawnicza Volumen, Warszawa.See also:
    "W obronie dobrego imienia kpt. "Burego"". Nasz Dziennik. 26 February 2016. Archived from the original on 27 February 2016.
  16. ↑ Pałka 2013, p. 10, §: "Największe, masowe opuszczanie szeregów wojska miało miejsce w latach 1944–1945, gdy dezerterowały i uciekały do lasu całe pododdziały".
  17. 1 2 3 4 IPN 2005, p. 3.
  18. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 3, §: "W wyniku podjętych działań przez "Rekina" udało się skoncentrować znaczniejsze siły na terenie powiatu wysoko mazowieckiego".
  19. ↑ Poleszak 2002, p. 4, §: "Celem działań NZW było stopniowe skupianie w swoich szeregach wszystkich organizacji narodowych, a następnie przejęcie przewodnictwa w konspiracji antykomunistycznej.".
  20. ↑ Poleszak 2002, p. 5.
  21. ↑ Poleszak 2002, p. 3, §: "na posterunkach Milicji Obywatelskiej i NKWD sporządzano listy członków podziemia, których miano aresztować w niedalekiej przyszłości".
  22. ↑ Poleszak 2002, pp. 9–10.
  23. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 3, §: "Celem koncentracji i przemarszu było szkolenie całego oddziału nazwanego 3 Wileńską Brygadą NZW".
  24. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 3, §: "członkowie oddziału dokonali selekcji zgromadzonych zaprzęgów konnych, wybierając lepsze pod względem sprawności".
  25. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 8, §: "żołnierze ludowego wojska polskiego".
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Maksymiuk, Jan (28 January 2016). "1946: час, калі палалі беларускія вёскі на Беласточчыне" [1946: the time when Belarusian villages burned in the Bialystok region]. Радыё Свабода (in Belarusian).
  27. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 24, §: "Nic nie wskazuje na to, że w Łozicach wybierano z góry upatrzone osoby, bowiem przy wyborze kierowano się tylko takimi kryteriami jak dobry koń, czy dobry wóz i to decydowało o tym, kto pojedzie z oddziałem".
  28. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 11, §: "Zielinko był sekretarzem partii w Suchowolcach".
  29. 1 2 IPN 2005, p. 4.
  30. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 4, §: "Osoby, które zginęły w Zaleszach byli to wyłącznie ci, którzy nie poszli na zebranie".
  31. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 18, §: "funkcjonariusze bezpieczeństwa podawali dane niezgodne z obiektywnym przebiegiem wydarzeń".
  32. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 11.
  33. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 9, §: "nie czekali, lecz uciekli z Krasnej Wsi".
  34. 1 2 3 IPN 2005, p. 9.
  35. ↑ Romuald Rajs "Bury". Żołnierz wyklęty i morderca - Andrzej Zdanowicz, Gazeta Współczesna, 12/03/2011
  36. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 9, §: "W bitwie tej zginęło 19 członków 3 Brygady".
  37. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 18, §: "uderzony przez gospodarza siekierą w głowę (k. 1113)".
  38. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 14, §: "za okupacji niemieckiej byli volksdeutschami".
  39. 1 2 3 IPN 2005, p. 5.
  40. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 16.
  41. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 14, §: "Polecenie spalenia wymienionych wsi otrzymałam od "Kotowicza" ("Lisa")".
  42. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 6, §: "Mieszkańcy wsi uciekli i nikt nie zginął (k. 1854)".
  43. 1 2 IPN 2005.
  44. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 18, §: "zawarte informacje o spaleniu pozostałych 4 miejscowości to wytwór wyobraźni funkcjonariuszy UB".
  45. ↑ Aleksander Staniszewski (30 April 2008). "Śliwowo - w szczerym polu czarny krzyż..." Ciechanowiec OnLine - Subiektywny Niecodziennik. Archived from the original on 28 October 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  46. 1 2 IPN 2005, p. 7.
  47. 1 2 Edmund Banasikowski (1990) [1988]. Na zew Ziemi Wileńskiej. Wydaw. Myśl. ISBN   9782869140356. OCLC   24585401.
  48. ↑ Maksymiuk, Jan (6 May 1990). "Попел і памяць" [Ashes and Memory]. Svoja.org (in Belarusian). Niwa. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  49. ↑ Lajeuskaja, Valiancina (2015). ""Я іх бачу" – рэпартаж Валянціны Лаеўскай" [I See Them - reportage by Valiancina Lajeuskaja]. Racyja.com (in Belarusian). Radio Racyja. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  50. ↑ IPN 2005, p. 6, §: "unieważnione na podstawie przepisów Ustawy o uznaniu za nieważne orzeczeń wydanych wobec osób represjonowanych za działalność na rzecz niepodległego bytu Państwa Polskiego".
  51. ↑ Katarzyna Bonda (22 May 2015). Okularnik. Ksiegarnia internetowa Znak.com.pl, Krakow. ISBN   978-83-7758-980-9.{{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  52. ↑ Videograf.pl (2015). "Katarzyna Bonda" (in Polish). Book portal Lubimyczytać.pl.
  53. ↑ Lajeuskaja, Valiancina (2016). "Кніга пісьменніцы з Гайнаўкі стала бестсэлерам у Польшчы" [A book by a writer from Hajnowka became a best seller in Poland]. Racyja.com (in Belarusian). Radio Racyja. Archived from the original on 12 October 2016. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  54. ↑ Staff writer (4 June 2012). "W Białymstoku stanął pomnik poświęcony prawosławnym ofiarom II Wojny Światowej". Polskie Radio Białystok.
  55. ↑ "Uroczystości w Zaleszanach". Wiadomości (in Polish). 27 July 2020. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
  56. ↑ "President Duda kneels at the memorial to victims of Zaleszany massacre". TVN24. 8 June 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  57. 1 2 Tilles, Daniel (2021-06-08). "In "historic gesture", Poland's president commemorates Belarusians killed by Polish partisans". Notes From Poland. Retrieved 2022-05-06.
  58. ↑ Ioffe, Grigory (14 June 2021). "Belarus's Political Crisis Reverberates in Russia and Poland". Jamestown. Retrieved 6 May 2022.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Białystok Voivodeship (1975–1998)</span> Former administrative division of Poland

Białystok Voivodeship was a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland from 1975 to 1998, when it was superseded by the Podlaskie Voivodeship. Its capital city was Białystok. It was formed in 1975 from part of the existing Białystok Voivodeship. The region was 10,055 km2 (3,882 sq mi), and its population in 1994, about 700 000 inhabitants. It was divided into 20 cities and 50 municipalities. It bordered with four Voivodeships: Suwałki, Łomża, Siedlce and Biała Podlaska and until 1991 with the Soviet Union, and later with Belarus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bielsk Podlaski</span> Place in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland

Bielsk Podlaski is a town in eastern Poland, within Bielsk County in the Podlaskie Voivodeship. As of December 2021, the town has a population of 24,883.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brańsk</span> Place in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland

Brańsk is a town in eastern Poland. It is situated within Podlaskie Voivodeship (province).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Podlachia</span> Historical region in northeastern Poland

Podlachia, also known by its Polish name Podlasie, is a historical region in north-eastern Poland. Its largest city is Białystok, whereas the historical capital is Drohiczyn.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bielsk County</span> County in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland

Bielsk County is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Podlaskie Voivodeship, north-eastern Poland. It came into being on 1 January 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. Its administrative seat and largest town is Bielsk Podlaski, which lies 39 kilometres (24 mi) south of the regional capital Białystok. The only other town in the county is Brańsk, lying 25 km (16 mi) west of Bielsk Podlaski.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cursed soldiers</span> Term applied to a variety of anti-Soviet and anti-communist Polish resistance movements

The "cursed soldiers" or "indomitable soldiers" were a heterogeneous array of anti-Soviet-imperialist and anti-communist Polish resistance movements formed in the later stages of World War II and in its aftermath by members of the Polish Underground State. The above terms, introduced in the early 1990s, reflect the stance of many of the diehard soldiers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Czeremcha, Podlaskie Voivodeship</span> Village in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland

Czeremcha is a village in Hajnówka County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in eastern Poland, close to the border with Belarus. It is the seat of the gmina called Gmina Czeremcha. It lies approximately 29 kilometres (18 mi) south-west of Hajnówka and 68 km (42 mi) south of the regional capital Białystok.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Naliboki massacre</span> 1943 massacre of Poles

The Naliboki massacre was the 8 May 1943 mass killing of 127 or 128 Poles by Soviet partisans in the small town of Naliboki in German-occupied Poland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gmina Brańsk</span> Gmina in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland

Gmina Brańsk is a rural gmina in Bielsk County, Podlaskie Voivodeship. It is located in north-eastern Poland.

Gmina Czyże is a rural gmina in Hajnówka County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland. Its seat is the village of Czyże, which lies approximately 12 kilometres (7 mi) north-west of Hajnówka and 41 km (25 mi) south-east of the regional capital Białystok.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Podlaskie Voivodeship</span> Voivodeship of Poland

Podlaskie Voivodeship is a voivodeship (province) in northeastern Poland. The name of the province refers to the historical region of Podlachia, and part of its territory corresponds to that region. The capital and largest city is Białystok.

Mień is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Brańsk, within Bielsk County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in eastern Poland. It lies approximately 10 kilometres (6 mi) west of Brańsk, 34 km (21 mi) west of Bielsk Podlaski, and 50 km (31 mi) south-west of the regional capital Białystok.

Pawlinowo is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Orla, within Bielsk County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland. It lies approximately 13 kilometres (8 mi) south-west of Orla, 17 km (11 mi) south of Bielsk Podlaski, and 56 km (35 mi) south of the regional capital Białystok.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zaleszany, Hajnówka County</span> Village in Podlaskie Voivodeship, Poland

Zaleszany is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Kleszczele, within Hajnówka County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland, close to the border with Belarus. It lies approximately 9 kilometres (6 mi) north of Kleszczele, 19 km (12 mi) south-west of Hajnówka, and 53 km (33 mi) south of the regional capital Białystok.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transport in Białystok</span>

Białystok is, and has been for centuries, the main hub of transportation for the Podlaskie Voivodeship and the entire northeastern section of Poland. It is a major city on the European Union roadways and railways to the Baltic Republics and Finland. It is also a main gateway of trade with Belarus due to its proximity to the border and its current and longstanding relationship with Hrodno, Belarus. Passenger trains do connect from Suwałki, Hrodno and Lithuania to Warsaw and the rest of the European passenger network. An extensive public transportation system is provided within the city by three bus services, but no tram or subway exists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Belarus–Poland border</span> International border

The Belarusian–Polish border is the state border between the Republic of Poland and the Republic of Belarus. It has a total length of 398.6 km (247.7 mi), 418 km (260 mi) or 416 km (258 mi). It starts from the triple junction of the borders with Lithuania in the north and stretches to the triple junction borders with Ukraine to the south. It is also part of the EU border with Belarus. The border runs along the administrative borders of two Voivodships Podlaskie and Lubelskie in the Polish side and Grodno and Brest Vobłasć in the Belarusian side. In the Polish side, the 246.93 km (153.44 mi) section is under the protection of the Podlaski Border Guard Regional Unit, while the 171.31 km (106.45 mi) section is in the operation area of the Bug Border Guard Regional Unit. Border rivers are Czarna Hańcza, Wołkuszanka, Świsłocz, Narew, and Bug.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Romuald Rajs</span> Polish soldier (1913–1949)

Romuald Rajs, nom de guerre "Bury", was a Polish soldier, a member of Home Army (AK) and National Military Union (NZW), an anti-communist insurgent and war criminal. In 1946 the unit under his command burned several Belarusian villages in the region of Białystok and massacred about 79 villagers. He was sentenced to death in a show trial held by the Polish communist government in 1949, charged with membership in delegalized NZW. Following the trial, he was executed in 1949. The verdict was nullified by the Military Court of Warsaw in 1995. In 2005, the Polish Institute of National Remembrance conducted an investigation which revealed that his actions bear the marks of genocide against Orthodox Belarusian community in post-war boundaries of Poland. Rajs is revered by regional nationalist Polish groups as a hero which creates tensions with the local Belarusian and Eastern Orthodox inhabitants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monument to World War II Orthodox victims, Białystok</span> Monument in Białystok

The Monument to World War II Orthodox victims in Białystok is a privately funded memorial commemorating the memory of 5,000 Orthodox Christians from the Białystok region who perished in World War II and during the postwar repressions in Stalinist Poland.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vera Maslovskaya</span> Belarusian poet and feminist

Vera Ignatyevna Maslovskaya was a Belarusian teacher, poet and nationalist, who worked for an independent Belarus in the interwar period. Founding some of the first schools that taught in the Belarusian language, her teaching career was interrupted with her arrest for her underground activities against the Polish government. When the Soviet Union took control of the area, during World War II, she returned to teaching, establishing schools which taught a Belarusian curriculum in several cities. At the end of the war, she fled to Poland to escape a resurgence in threats against former nationalist activists. She worked in a kindergarten for five years in Silesia and then returned to Supraśl, where she served as the head of the city library and later on the Białystok District Council. She was a socialist and is considered to be one of the founders of the Belarusian women's movement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Podlachian language</span> East Slavic microlanguage

Podlachian language is an East Slavic literary microlanguage based on the East Slavic dialects spoken by inhabitants of the southern part of Podlachian Province in Poland between the Narew (north) and Bug (south) rivers. The native speakers of these dialects usually refer to them by the adverbial term po-svojomu. The unequivocal academic classification of the po-svojomu dialects has been disputed for many years among linguists as well as activists of ethnic minorities in Podlachia, who classify them as either Belarusian dialects with Ukrainian traits or Ukrainian dialects.

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.