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Warm-blooded is an informal term referring to animal species whose bodies maintain a temperature higher than that of their environment. In particular,homeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes. Other species have various degrees of thermoregulation.
Hibernation is a state of minimal activity and metabolic depression undergone by some animal species. Hibernation is a seasonal heterothermy characterized by low body-temperature,slow breathing and heart-rate,and low metabolic rate. It most commonly occurs during winter months.
Torpor is a state of decreased physiological activity in an animal,usually marked by a reduced body temperature and metabolic rate. Torpor enables animals to survive periods of reduced food availability. The term "torpor" can refer to the time a hibernator spends at low body temperature,lasting days to weeks,or it can refer to a period of low body temperature and metabolism lasting less than 24 hours,as in "daily torpor".
An endotherm is an organism that maintains its body at a metabolically favorable temperature,largely by the use of heat released by its internal bodily functions instead of relying almost purely on ambient heat. Such internally generated heat is mainly an incidental product of the animal's routine metabolism,but under conditions of excessive cold or low activity an endotherm might apply special mechanisms adapted specifically to heat production. Examples include special-function muscular exertion such as shivering,and uncoupled oxidative metabolism,such as within brown adipose tissue.
Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs in all warm-blooded animals,and also in a few species of thermogenic plants such as the Eastern skunk cabbage,the Voodoo lily,and the giant water lilies of the genus Victoria. The lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe,Arceuthobium americanum,disperses its seeds explosively through thermogenesis.
The metabolic theory of ecology (MTE) is the ecological component of the more general Metabolic Scaling Theory and Kleiber's law. It posits that the metabolic rate of organisms is the fundamental biological rate that governs most observed patterns in ecology. MTE is part of a larger set of theory known as metabolic scaling theory that attempts to provide a unified theory for the importance of metabolism in driving pattern and process in biology from the level of cells all the way to the biosphere.
Experimental evolution is the use of laboratory experiments or controlled field manipulations to explore evolutionary dynamics. Evolution may be observed in the laboratory as individuals/populations adapt to new environmental conditions by natural selection.
Exaptation and the related term co-option describe a shift in the function of a trait during evolution. For example,a trait can evolve because it served one particular function,but subsequently it may come to serve another. Exaptations are common in both anatomy and behaviour.
Phenotypic plasticity refers to some of the changes in an organism's behavior,morphology and physiology in response to a unique environment. Fundamental to the way in which organisms cope with environmental variation,phenotypic plasticity encompasses all types of environmentally induced changes that may or may not be permanent throughout an individual's lifespan.
Climatic adaptation refers to adaptations of an organism that are triggered due to the patterns of variation of abiotic factors that determine a specific climate. Annual means,seasonal variation and daily patterns of abiotic factors are properties of a climate where organisms can be adapted to. Changes in behavior,physical structure,internal mechanisms and metabolism are forms of adaptation that is caused by climate properties. Organisms of the same species that occur in different climates can be compared to determine which adaptations are due to climate and which are influenced majorly by other factors. Climatic adaptations limits to adaptations that have been established,characterizing species that live within the specific climate. It is different from climate change adaptations which refers to the ability to adapt to gradual changes of a climate. Once a climate has changed,the climate change adaptation that led to the survival of the specific organisms as a species can be seen as a climatic adaptation. Climatic adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question.
The physiology of dinosaurs has historically been a controversial subject,particularly their thermoregulation. Recently,many new lines of evidence have been brought to bear on dinosaur physiology generally,including not only metabolic systems and thermoregulation,but on respiratory and cardiovascular systems as well.
Carrier's constraint is the observation that air-breathing vertebrates which have two lungs and flex their bodies sideways during locomotion find it very difficult to move and breathe at the same time,because the sideways flexing expands one lung and compresses the other,shunting stale air from lung to lung instead of expelling it completely to make room for fresh air.
Comparative physiology is a subdiscipline of physiology that studies and exploits the diversity of functional characteristics of various kinds of organisms. It is closely related to evolutionary physiology and environmental physiology. Many universities offer undergraduate courses that cover comparative aspects of animal physiology. According to Clifford Ladd Prosser,"Comparative Physiology is not so much a defined discipline as a viewpoint,a philosophy."
Evolutionary physiology is the study of the biological evolution of physiological structures and processes;that is,the manner in which the functional characteristics of individuals in a population of organisms have responded to natural selection across multiple generations during the history of the population. It is a sub-discipline of both physiology and evolutionary biology. Practitioners in the field come from a variety of backgrounds,including physiology,evolutionary biology,ecology,and genetics.
A eurytherm is an organism,often an endotherm,that can function at a wide range of ambient temperatures. To be considered a eurytherm,all stages of an organism's life cycle must be considered,including juvenile and larval stages. These wide ranges of tolerable temperatures are directly derived from the tolerance of a given eurythermal organism's proteins. Extreme examples of eurytherms include Tardigrades (Tardigrada),the desert pupfish,and green crabs,however,nearly all mammals,including humans,are considered eurytherms. Eurythermy can be an evolutionary advantage:adaptations to cold temperatures,called cold-eurythemy,are seen as essential for the survival of species during ice ages. In addition,the ability to survive in a wide range of temperatures increases a species' ability to inhabit other areas,an advantage for natural selection.
The E. coli long-term evolution experiment (LTEE) is an ongoing study in experimental evolution begun by Richard Lenski at the University of California,Irvine,carried on by Lenski and colleagues at Michigan State University,and currently overseen by Jeffrey E. Barrick at the University of Texas at Austin. It has been tracking genetic changes in 12 initially identical populations of asexual Escherichia coli bacteria since 24 February 1988. Lenski performed the 10,000th transfer of the experiment on March 13,2017. The populations reached over 73,000 generations in early 2020,shortly before being frozen because of the COVID-19 pandemic. In September 2020,the LTEE experiment was resumed using the frozen stocks.
The beneficial acclimation hypothesis (BAH) is the physiological hypothesis that acclimating to a particular environment provides an organism with advantages in that environment. First formally tested by Armand Marie Leroi,Albert Bennett,and Richard Lenski in 1994,it has however been a central assumption in historical physiological work that acclimation is adaptive. Further refined by Raymond B. Huey and David Berrigan under the strong inference approach,the hypothesis has been falsified as a general rule by a series of multiple hypotheses experiments.
Theodore Garland Jr. is a biologist specializing in evolutionary physiology at the University of California,Riverside.
In biology,kleptothermy is any form of thermoregulation by which an animal shares in the metabolic thermogenesis of another animal. It may or may not be reciprocal,and occurs in both endotherms and ectotherms. One of its forms is huddling. However,kleptothermy can happen between different species that share the same habitat,and can also happen in pre-hatching life where embryos are able to detect thermal changes in the environment.
A mesotherm is a type of animal with a thermoregulatory strategy intermediate to cold-blooded ectotherms and warm-blooded endotherms.
References
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- ↑ Greenstone, Matthew H.; Bennett, Albert F. (October 11, 1980). "Foraging Strategy and Metabolic Rate in Spiders". Ecology. 61 (5): 1255–1259. doi:10.2307/1936843. JSTOR 1936843.
- ↑ Jayne, Bruce C.; Bennett, Albert F. (August 11, 1990). "Selection on Locomotor Performance Capacity in a Natural Population of Garter Snakes". Evolution. 44 (5): 1204–1229. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1990.tb05226.x . PMID 28563892. S2CID 38832973.
- ↑ Kaufmann, Jefferey S.; Bennett, Albert F. (September 11, 1989). "The Effect of Temperature and Thermal Acclimation on Locomotor Performance in Xantusia vigilis, the Desert Night Lizard". Physiological Zoology. 62 (5): 1047–1058. doi:10.1086/physzool.62.5.30156195. S2CID 55517847.
- ↑ "Relative Contributions of Anaerobic and Aerobic Energy Production during Activity in Amphibia" (PDF).
- ↑ "Locomotor Performance and Energetic Cost of Sidewinding by the Snake Crotalus Cerastes".
- ↑ "PHYLOGENETIC STUDIES OF COADAPTATION: PREFERRED TEMPERATURES VERSUS OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE TEMPERATURES OF LIZARDS".
- ↑ Bennett, Albert F.; Ruben, John A. (November 9, 1979). "Endothermy and Activity in Vertebrates". Science. 206 (4419): 649–654. Bibcode:1979Sci...206..649B. doi:10.1126/science.493968. PMID 493968.
- ↑ Bennett, A. F. (August 1, 1990). "Thermal dependence of locomotor capacity". American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 259 (2): R253–R258. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1990.259.2.R253. PMID 2201218.
- ↑ Pörtner, Hans O.; Bennett, Albert F.; Bozinovic, Francisco; Clarke, Andrew; Lardies, Marco A.; Lucassen, Magnus; Pelster, Bernd; Schiemer, Fritz; Stillman, Jonathon H. (March 11, 2006). "Trade-Offs in Thermal Adaptation: The Need for a Molecular to Ecological Integration". Physiological and Biochemical Zoology. 79 (2): 295–313. doi:10.1086/499986. PMID 16555189. S2CID 16025719.
- ↑ Bennett, A. F. (1978). "Activity Metabolism of the Lower Vertebrates". Annual Review of Physiology. 40: 447–469. doi:10.1146/annurev.ph.40.030178.002311. PMID 345952.
- ↑ "The Metabolic Foundations of Vertebrate Behavior".
- ↑ Bennett, Albert F.; Nagy, Kenneth A. (May 11, 1977). "Energy Expenditure in Free-Ranging Lizards". Ecology. 58 (3): 697–700. doi:10.2307/1939022. JSTOR 1939022.
- ↑ "Phylogenetic approaches in comparative physiology".
- ↑ "Physiological Adjustments to Fluctuating Thermal Environments: An Ecological and Evolutionary Perspective" (PDF).
- ↑ "Experimental Evolution and Its Role in Evolutionary Physiology".
- ↑ Tenaillon, Olivier; Rodríguez-Verdugo, Alejandra; Gaut, Rebecca L.; McDonald, Pamela; Bennett, Albert F.; Long, Anthony D.; Gaut, Brandon S. (January 27, 2012). "The Molecular Diversity of Adaptive Convergence". Science. 335 (6067): 457–461. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..457T. doi:10.1126/science.1212986. PMID 22282810. S2CID 206537081.
- ↑ Travisano, Michael; Mongold, Judith A.; Bennett, Albert F.; Lenski, Richard E. (January 6, 1995). "Experimental Tests of the Roles of Adaptation, Chance, and History in Evolution". Science. 267 (5194): 87–90. Bibcode:1995Sci...267...87T. doi:10.1126/science.7809610. PMID 7809610.
- ↑ Bennett, Albert F.; Lenski, Richard E. (2007). "An experimental test of evolutionary trade-offs during temperature adaptation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (Suppl 1): 8649–8654. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0702117104 . PMC 1876442 . PMID 17494741.
- ↑ "American Society of Zoologists (Amalgamated) - Society Presidents".
- ↑ "APS announces its 2002 Distinguished Lectureships". EurekAlert!.
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