The Association for Research into Crimes against Art (ARCA) is a non-governmental civil society organisation (CSO) that conducts scholarly research and training in the field of combating cultural property crime.[1] Established in 2009, ARCA was created to address gaps in the international legal framework related to art and antiquities crimes. It was founded by Noah Charney, an art historian, art crime expert, and published author.
Internationally recognized for its work in the specialized field of art crime research, ARCA's affiliate researchers are frequently interviewed by the press and invited to provide commentary on criminal incidents impacting the art market. They also offer insights on cases where art crimes intersect with other forms of criminality, such as money laundering, organized crime, and terrorist financing.[2]
The Association's work has been recognized by both governmental and non-governmental institutions as a valuable resource for understanding and interpreting art crimes. To support this mission, ARCA maintains collaborative relationships with intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations through cooperation agreements with international bodies, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT), and the International Council of Museums (ICOM) Observatory of Illicit Traffic.[3][4][5]
History and activities
ARCA was established in 2009 to address gaps in the international legal framework concerning art and antiquities crimes. It was founded by Dr. Noah Charney, an art historian, art crime expert, and author.[6][7]
As one of the earliest volunteer-driven forums of its kind, the Association focuses on uniting experts from diverse fields, including art, archaeology, criminal justice, and law, to collaborate and share knowledge, research, and resources. Its aim is to better analyze and address the complexities of cultural property crimes more effectively. The Association’s goals include raising awareness and fostering dialogue about the intricacies of transnational cultural property-related crimes, including their causes, prevention, and control. It also seeks to highlight how stolen art and looted cultural items can serve as sources of profit that fuel other criminal activities.[citation needed]
International advisory
In March 2018, ARCA was invited to participate in UNESCO's Category 6 expert committee meeting and conference at its Paris headquarters. The event focused on engaging the European art market and sensitizing relevant stakeholders to the implications of illicit cultural property trafficking, including its impact on cultural heritage protection, terrorism financing, and money laundering.[8]
In 2023, ARCA addressed an audience of diplomats, policymakers, and stakeholders at a United Nations event organized by the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED). The organization spoke about emerging trends in the destruction of cultural heritage, the illicit trade of cultural property, and their connections to terrorism.[9]
Criminal justice advisory
ARCA's research has been recognized for supporting law enforcement and public prosecutors in protecting cultural heritage and upholding the rule of law. In one notable case, the Association's contributions were acknowledged by the Manhattan District Attorney's Office in New York for assisting in the Grand Jury investigation into private antiquities collector Michael Steinhardt. The investigation focused on his acquisition, possession, and sale of antiquities that were determined to be stolen property under New York law. This acknowledgment is a matter of public record and is accessible through the New York Courts.[10]
ARCA also serves as an advisory body for Operation Pandora, an annual European police operation conducted within the framework of the European Multidisciplinary Platform Against Criminal Threats (EMPACT). Launched in 2016, the operation targets the illicit trafficking of looted or stolen cultural goods circulating in the European market. This multi-country initiative is coordinated by Europol, Interpol, and the World Customs Organization and involves experts in art crime research, including ARCA's forensic analysts. These specialists assist law enforcement agencies by facilitating the identification of illicitly trafficked art.[11][12]
In line with its outreach goals, researchers supported by ARCA have identified numerous looted or stolen cultural properties circulating within the legitimate art market.[13][14] They have also exposed fraudulent art schemes involving U.S. dealers who falsify provenance records to launder illicit antiquities.[15]
Training
Since 2009, the Association has offered a professional development Postgraduate Certificate Program in Art Crime and Cultural Heritage Protection. This program consists of eleven courses held annually during the summer in Amelia, Italy.[16]
In 2017, the Association launched a second in-person initiative, offering advanced and introductory provenance research training courses in partnership with the Holocaust Art Restitution Project.[17]
During the stringent COVID-19 lockdowns in Italy, ARCA developed a series of online training courses to comply with health and safety regulations aimed at reducing virus transmission. During this period, the Association's online courses were highlighted by The International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas (ALIPH) as providing "useful, accurate, and up-to-date topics on the subject of art crime and cultural heritage protection."[18]
ARCA has also provided tailored training in partnership with UNESCO through the agency's Heritage Emergency Fund. In 2018, this training took place in Beirut, Lebanon.[19] From 15 to 18 March 2021, ARCA delivered training modules for twenty-four customs officers from Eastern and Central Europe who participated in a virtual specialized PITCH (Preventing Illicit Trafficking of Cultural Heritage) training. This training was organized jointly by the World Customs Organization (WCO) and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE).[20]
Sponsorship and outreach
When funding allows, ARCA has sponsored the documentation and exploration of new methodologies, approaches, and interactions focused on art and antiquities crime, as well as efforts toward its mitigation. In 2012, the Association awarded its Writer's Residency to Dr. Laurie Rush, a U.S.-based archaeologist and Cultural Resource Manager at Fort Drum. Dr. Rush advocates for Cultural Property Protection as a force multiplier in stability operations within the military. During her summer residency with ARCA, she was introduced to officers from Italy's Carabinieri art crime police unit, who, in turn, authorized the first English-language book highlighting the work of the Italian military's Carabinieri Command for the Protection of Cultural Property.[21]
Since 2010, the Association has hosted its eponymous international art crime conference in Amelia, Italy. This event is designed for academic researchers, provenance researchers, law enforcement officials, museum professionals, legal experts, and public prosecutors who are addressing the ethical and legal complexities of art and antiquities crime and cultural property protection.[22]
In 2016, a weekend-long conference forum focused on the concept of Cultural Rights and Value Education.[23][24] In 2018, the event emphasized art crimes committed during incidents of asymmetrical warfare in the Middle East and featured presentations from archaeologists working in the conflict zones of Syria and Iraq.[25] More recently, in 2023, an ARCA-affiliated forensic researcher was appointed to serve on the international panel of experts assisting with the British Museum's recovery project, aimed at recovering artifacts stolen from the museum.[26][27]
Publications
Since 2009, ARCA has published the peer-reviewed Journal of Art Crime (JAC) on a biannual basis. The journal focuses on interdisciplinary academic articles related to art and antiquities crimes, their investigation, and their long-term repercussions. Some articles in the JAC represent the first publication of forensic work conducted by leading art crime-focused archaeologists, who track and identify looted antiquities circulating in the art market.[28]
The JAC also features "cold cases," shedding light on lesser-known work by law enforcement investigators, who are often restricted from commenting on cases until long after the investigations have been closed.[29]
The Journal of Art Crime (JAC) is available to subscribers in both print and ePaper formats. It is also accessible through university digital research lending platforms, including the HeinOnline Law Journal Library.[30] Additionally, the JAC can be accessed via the Metropolitan Museum of Art's library collection and the regional interlibrary loan system known as UBorrow.[31]
ARCA also maintains an art crime blog that provides free, open-access resources for scholars, law enforcement professionals, museum curators, and the general public. The blog addresses issues related to cultural property crime and the organization's activities, offering insights into the complexities of art crime and its broader societal implications. Since 2009, the Association has published more than 2,000 articles covering topics such as provenance, looting, illicit trafficking, forgery, vandalism, and iconoclasm.[32][33]
In the media
In 2021, ARCA's work was featured in two film documentaries, one originating in the United States and the other in the UK.
The first, Lot 448, directed by Bella Monticelli, premiered at the 2021 Tribeca Film Festival as part of the festival's Female Trailblazers film series.[34] Focused on showcasing women working in traditionally male-dominated fields, the film highlighted the efforts of one of ARCA's forensic researchers. The researcher gathered evidence in an attempt to stop the auction of a looted Etruscan antefix and worked to return the artifact to its country of origin.[35][36]
The second documentary, titled Art Traffickers – Treasures Stolen From the Tombs, was produced by TIWI for Sky Arts. This film features commentary from an ARCA researcher discussing the historic looting and plunder carried out by some of Italy's most notorious antiquities trafficking networks.[37]
Notes
↑ Kila, J.D. (2012). Heritage under siege: military implementation of the 1954 Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property. Brill. p.57. ISBN978-9004215689.
Art theft, sometimes called artnapping, is the stealing of paintings, sculptures, or other forms of visual art from galleries, museums or other public and private locations. Stolen art is often resold or used by criminals as collateral to secure loans. Only a small percentage of stolen art is recovered—an estimated 10%. Many nations operate police squads to investigate art theft and illegal trade in stolen art and antiquities.
The International Council of Museums (ICOM) is a non-governmental organisation dedicated to museums, maintaining formal relations with UNESCO and having a consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council. Founded in 1946, ICOM also partners with entities such as the World Intellectual Property Organization, Interpol, and the World Customs Organization in order to carry out its international public service missions, which include fighting illicit traffic in cultural goods and promoting risk management and emergency preparedness to protect world cultural heritage in the event of natural or man-made disasters. Members of the ICOM get the ICOM membership card, which provides free entry, or entry at a reduced rate, to many museums all over the world.
Repatriation is the return of the cultural property, often referring to ancient or looted art, to their country of origin or former owners.
Archaeological looting in Iraq took place since at least the late 19th century. The chaos following war provided the opportunity to pillage everything that was not nailed down. There were also attempts to protect the sites such as the period between April 9, 2003, when the staff vacated the Iraq Museum and April 15, 2003, when US forces arrived in sufficient numbers to "restore some semblance of order." Some 15,000 cultural artifacts disappeared in that time. Over the years approximately 14,800 were recovered from within and outside Iraq and taken under the protection of the Iraqi government.
American Council for Cultural Policy (ACCP) was a not-for-profit organization formed in 2002 by a group of politically influential antiquities dealers, collectors and lawyers in the United States, with its headquarters in New York and representatives in Washington D.C. The goal of the organization was described by Ashton Hawkins as "informing the public on arts issues." The organization is now defunct and its website (culturalpolicycouncil.org) has been removed from the web. Some of its members now actively take part in Cultural Policy Research Institute.
Colonel Matthew Bogdanos is an Assistant District Attorney in Manhattan, author, boxer, and a retired colonel in the United States Marine Corps. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Bogdanos deployed to Afghanistan where he was awarded a Bronze Star for actions against Al-Qaeda and the Taliban. In 2003, while on active duty in the Marine Corps, he led an investigation into the looting of Iraq's National Museum, and was subsequently awarded the National Humanities Medal for his efforts. Returning to the District Attorney’s Office in 2010, he created and still heads the Antiquities Trafficking Unit, “the only one of its kind in the world.” The unit investigated looted art and helped repatriate them to their countries of origin. Matthew Bogdanos has faced opposition during his tenure at the Antiquities Trafficking Unit from museums impacted by his investigations.
Looted art has been a consequence of looting during war, natural disaster and riot for centuries. Looting of art, archaeology and other cultural property may be an opportunistic criminal act or may be a more organized case of unlawful or unethical pillage by the victor of a conflict. The term "looted art" reflects bias, and whether particular art has been taken legally or illegally is often the subject of conflicting laws and subjective interpretations of governments and people; use of the term "looted art" in reference to a particular art object implies that the art was taken illegally.
The antiquities trade is the exchange of antiquities and archaeological artifacts from around the world. This trade may be illicit or completely legal. The legal antiquities trade abides by national regulations, allowing for extraction of artifacts for scientific study whilst maintaining archaeological and anthropological context. The illicit antiquities trade involves non-scientific extraction that ignores the archaeological and anthropological context from the artifacts.
Heritage Watch is a non-profit organization dedicated to saving Cambodia’s cultural legacy. Heritage Watch has been working since 2003 to raise awareness of looting and its consequences and to research the trade of illicit Cambodian antiquities.
ARCA's Postgraduate Certificate Program in Art Crime and Cultural Heritage Protection is a multidisciplinary postgraduate certificate program that specializes in the study of art crime and cultural property protection. The course programming consists of 10–11 weeks of academic instruction at the postgraduate level and is hosted in Amelia, Italy. The instruction covers a wide variety of theoretical and practical elements of art and heritage crime and examines art crime's interconnected world of art criminals, investigators, lawyers and art historians. The courses include comprehensive lectures and discussions exploring art crime, its nature and impact, as well as what is currently being done to mitigate it.
The Carabinieri Command for the Protection of Cultural Heritage, better known as the Carabinieri T.P.C., is the branch of the Italian Carabinieri responsible for combatting art and antiquities crimes and is viewed as an experienced and efficient task force.
UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects is the international treaty on the subject of cultural property protection. It attempts to strengthen the main weaknesses of the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. The UNIDROIT Convention seeks to fight the illicit trafficking of cultural property by modifying the buyer's behaviour, obliging him/her to check the legitimacy of their purchase.
The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property is an international treaty to combat the illegal trade in cultural items. It was signed on 14 November 1970 and came into effect on 24 April 1972. As of February 2024, 143 states have ratified the convention.
Geneva Freeport is a warehouse complex in Geneva, Switzerland, for the storage of art and other valuables and collectibles. It is the oldest and largest freeport facility, and the one with the most artworks, with 40% of its collection being art with an estimated value of US$100 billion.
"The Spoils of War—World War II and Its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property" was an international symposium held in New York City in 1995 to discuss the artworks, cultural property, and historic sites damaged, lost, and plundered as a result of World War II. The three-day event was sponsored by the Bard Graduate Center for Studies in the Decorative Arts to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the end of the war. The conference was organized by Elizabeth Simpson, an archaeologist and professor at the Bard Graduate Center.
The coffin of Nedjemankh is a gilded ancient Egyptian coffin from the late Ptolemaic Period. It once encased the mummy of Nedjemankh, a priest of the ram-god Heryshaf. The coffin was purchased by the New York City Metropolitan Museum of Art in July 2017 to be the centerpiece of an exhibition entitled "Nedjemankh and His Gilded Coffin." The Metropolitan Museum of Art repatriated Nedjemankh and his coffin to Egypt in 2019, before the scheduled closure of the exhibition.
Donna Yates is an archaeologist and Associate Professor in the Department of Criminal Law and Criminology at Maastricht University. Her research considers transnational illicit trade in cultural objects, art and heritage crime including Looted art and the Antiquities trade, and white collar crime.
Douglas Arthur Joseph "Dynamite" Latchford was a British art dealer, smuggler and author. He is known for being a prominent collector and trader of Cambodian statues and artefacts, which he illegally smuggled out of the country during the civil war and Khmer Rouge eras, and sold to prominent museums and art collectors. He was charged with fraud in 2019 for falsifying the origins of traded antiquities. Since his death in 2020, millions of dollars worth of artefacts smuggled by Latchford have been repatriated to Cambodia.
Apsara Iyer is an American art crime investigator and the 137th president of the Harvard Law Review. She is the first Indian American woman to be elected to that position.
Folarin Olawale Shyllon was a historian recognised for his contributions to the history of black people in Britain and his work on heritage law and protection of cultural heritage.
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