The Baikal Archaeology Project (BAP) is an international team of scholars investigating Middle Holocene (about 9000 to 3000 years before present) hunter-gatherers of the Lake Baikal region of Siberia, Russia. The Project focuses on long-term patterns of culture change in the context of dynamic interactions with the environment. The Baikal Archaeology Project is based at the University of Alberta with Irkutsk State University being its main research partner on the Russian side. Other institutional collaborators of the project have included the University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan, Grant MacEwan University, British Columbia Institute of Technology, University of Pennsylvania, University of California-Davis, Cambridge University, Oxford University, University College London, University of Aberdeen, and Institutes of Geochemistry and Earth’s Crust, Russian Academy of Sciences in Irkutsk and Irkutsk State Technical University in Russia. The Baikal Archaeology Project has been extensively funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
Archaeological research of the Lake Baikal region’s Middle Holocene hunter-gatherers began during the second half of the 19th century and was followed by a long period of intensive research conducted during the Soviet period by researchers such as Alexei Pavlovich Okladnikov. The Baikal Archaeology Project was formed in the mid-1990s during the time of profound political, social, and economic changes in Russia. Since then, the Baikal Archaeology Project launched an extensive multidisciplinary investigation of Middle Holocene hunter-gatherers of the Baikal region. The research model involves both original fieldwork and the application of modern laboratory techniques to previously as well as recently excavated collections of archaeological materials. Much of this work is facilitated by the presence of prehistoric cemeteries with well-preserved human remains – an unusual hunter-gatherer characteristic from a global perspective. Employing many advanced research methods and the integration of diverse lines of evidence generated by mortuary archaeology, zooarchaeology, radiocarbon dating, human osteology, isotope geochemistry, ancient and modern DNA research, ethnoarchaeology, and paleoclimatic and environmental studies, the project aims to achieve an improved understanding of the cultural complexity, variability, and dynamics of the long-term culture change among past boreal foragers in the Baikal region. [1] [2]
The Middle Holocene archaeology of the Baikal region is attractive particularly owing to its wealth of well-preserved cemeteries as well as the availability of stratified habitation sites. The region also invites attention because of a unique pattern of culture change in which two periods of increased social complexity, as evidenced by large numbers of formal cemeteries dating to the Early Neolithic and the Late Neolithic–Bronze Age, are separated by a millennium-long Middle Neolithic period during which mortuary sites are entirely absent.
Period | Cemeteries | Tradition | Cal YBP |
---|---|---|---|
Late Mesolithic | Absent | Unknown | 8800-8000 |
Early Neolithic | Present | Kitoi | 8000-7200 |
Middle Neolithic | Absent | Unknown | 7200-6000 |
Late Neolithic | Present | Isakovo, Serovo | 6000-5000 |
Bronze Age | Present | Glazkovo | 5000-4000 |
The first period of social complexity is associated with the Early Neolithic Kitoi culture, while the second period relates to the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age Isakovo, Serovo, and Glazkovo cultures, respectively. Since most of the current knowledge about the region’s Middle Holocene prehistory has been derived from examination of cemeteries, the Middle Neolithic, which lacks mortuary sites, does not enjoy the same level of archaeological identity as the preceding and following periods. Thus, it has often been referred to as the period of hiatus or discontinuity in the use of formal cemeteries.
Results from this research demonstrate that the discontinuity existed for as much as 1200 years and that the Early Neolithic and Late Neolithic–Bronze Age groups, which lived in the area on either side of this hiatus, were genetically dissimilar. Further differences between these pre- and post-hiatus groups are noted with regard to dietary preferences, subsistence and land use patterns, population size and distribution, social and political relations, and worldviews. Climate and environmental change in the region also seems to coincide with this period of discontinuity.
The two main research goals the Baikal Archaeology Project are:
(1) To define the biocultural and environmental parameters of the middle Holocene hunter-gatherer adaptations; and (2) To explain the documented spatial and temporal cultural variability.
A substantial amount of research conducted by the Baikal Archaeology Project is dedicated to the comprehensive examination of several collections of human remains excavated in the Lake Baikal region either by the Project, or by earlier Russian scholars.
Excavated | Cemetery | Region | Age | No. of graves | No. of burials |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Prior to BAP | Lokomotiv | Angara Valley | Early Neolithic | 60 | 106 |
By BAP | Shamanka II | South Baikal | Early Neolithic, Bronze Age | 111 | 189 |
Prior to BAP | Ust'-Ida | Angara Valley | Late Neolithic, Bronze Age | 60 | 72 |
By BAP | Kurma XI | Baikal Little Sea | Early Neolithic, Bronze Age | 27 | 23 |
By BAP | Khuzir-Nuge XIV | Baikal Little Sea | Bronze Age | 79 | 89 |
The work of the Baikal Archaeology Project is organized within five research modules – Archaeology, Human Bioarchaeology, Human Genetics, Ethnoarchaeology, and Paleoenvironment – each addressing the Project’s general objectives with a different, but complementary, methodology. The Archaeology, Human Bioarchaeology, and Human Genetics modules supply the primary data on the Middle Holocene hunter-gatherers, while the Paleoenvironment and Ethnoarchaeology modules provide a broad interpretive framework for the bioarchaeological data.
The Archaeology Module examines development, use, and spatial organization of the region’s numerous hunter-gatherer cemeteries, mortuary protocols, social and political organization, migrations and mobility patterns, as well as the overall spatiotemporal variability in hunter-gatherer adaptations. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] Zooarchaeologists study hunting and fishing strategies based on faunal remains from archaeological sites. Of particular interest is documenting past exploitation of aquatic resources (including Nerpa, the freshwater seal of Lake Baikal) for which the region is famous. [12] [13] [14] [15]
Bioarchaeological research provides information about health, paleodemography and activity patterns [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] Bone chemistry permits a much better resolution of the spatial and temporal variability of diet and subsistence, which are also very important additional measures of mobility and social organization. [22] [23] [24]
The ancient mtDNA material obtained from human remains excavated from the Baikal region’s prehistoric cemeteries has demonstrated the genetic discontinuity between the Early Neolithic and Late Neolithic to Bronze Age peoples, the genetic similarity between the latter two, and has revealed new aspects of social and political complexity among the Early Neolithic groups. [25] [26] Examination of modern DNA materials in the context of the ancient DNA information allows assessment of the genetic history of native Siberians. [27] [28] [29]
Paleoenvironmental research, which involves both extensive fieldwork and computer modeling techniques, has identified a period of climatic change affecting the Baikal region that coincided chronologically with the end of the Early Neolithic Kitoi culture. [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] While this change is believed to be the most significant in the region's entire Holocene climate history, it appears that its impact may have been greatest on the semi-arid areas south and east of Lake Baikal rather than on the more forested west and north.
Ethnographic and ethnohistoric research focuses upon how indigenous Buriat, Evenki, and Sakha peoples have adapted to boreal environments in general, and its coastal, alpine, and steppe niches in particular. [38] The module has also discovered, in 11 Siberian cities, a series of documents from the 1926 Polar Census in Siberia, which is the richest dataset on boreal hunter-gatherers yet known. [39] [40]
Researchers of the Archaeology, Paleoenvironment, and Ethnoarchaeology modules have conducted intensive fieldwork in many locations around Lake Baikal. Archaeologists excavated the cemeteries of Shamanka, Khuzhir-Nuge XIV, and Kurma XI, all located on the shores of Lake Baikal. This work expanded the existing collection of Middle Holocene burials in the region by c. 300 individuals, thus creating new research opportunities. Excavations were also carried out at the stratified habitation sites of Gorelyi Les in the Angara valley and Sagan-Zaba and Bugul’deika coves on Lake Baikal, providing archaeological data covering the entire Holocene. In conjunction with these excavations, the Baikal Archaeology Project organized archaeological field schools which attracted participants from Russia, Canada, USA, United Kingdom, and Poland.
Cemeteries
Habitation Sites
The Paleonvironment module conducted fieldwork at numerous locations around Lake Baikal including its western shores (lakes Shara and Khall), the valleys of the Lena (Basovo), Selenga (Burdukovo), and Kirenga (Krasnyi Yar) rivers, the Tunka Valley (lake Arky) west of Baikal, and northern Mongolia. This work involved detailed examination of Holocene lake core records (pollen, diatom and macrofossils) and stratified floodplain sediments for high resolution paleoenvironmental reconstructions.
The Ethnoarchaeology module organized field research with Evenki and Sakha hunters and reindeer herders at sites in the Bodaibo District (Irkutsk oblast’), Zhuia River Valley, Severobaikalsk District (Buriat Republic), and villages of Essei and Olenok. This fieldwork is designed to provide the Baikal Archaeology Project with modern examples of subsistence action in specific lacustrian and riverine landscapes, characteristic also of the Middle Holocene hunter-gatherer groups.
The Baikal Archaeology Project has organized three international conferences (in Canada, Russia and Scotland), several conference sessions, and dozens of workshops and seminars. Project scholars and graduate students have produced numerous journalism papers, doctoral dissertations and masters’ theses, as well as five monographs under its Northern Hunter-Gatherers Research Series, published by Canadian Circumpolar Institute Press, University of Alberta. The most important publications are listed below.
The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age is the Old World archaeological period between the Upper Paleolithic and the Neolithic. The term Epipaleolithic is often used synonymously, especially for outside northern Europe, and for the corresponding period in the Levant and Caucasus. The Mesolithic has different time spans in different parts of Eurasia. It refers to the final period of hunter-gatherer cultures in Europe and Middle East, between the end of the Last Glacial Maximum and the Neolithic Revolution. In Europe it spans roughly 15,000 to 5,000 BP; in the Middle East roughly 20,000 to 10,000 BP. The term is less used of areas farther east, and not at all beyond Eurasia and North Africa.
The Sayan Mountains are a mountain range in southern Siberia, Russia and northern Mongolia. In the past, it served as the border between Mongolia and Russia.
The Evenks are a Tungusic people of North Asia. In Russia, the Evenks are recognised as one of the Indigenous peoples of the Russian North, with a population of 38,396. In China, the Evenki form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognised by the People's Republic of China, with a population of 30,875. There are 537 Evenks in Mongolia, called Khamnigan in the Mongolian language.
The Lena is a river in the Russian Far East, and is the easternmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean. The Lena is the eleventh-longest river in the world, and the longest river entirely within Russia, with a length of 4,294 km (2,668 mi) and a drainage basin of 2,490,000 km2 (960,000 sq mi). Permafrost underlies most of the catchment, 77% of which is continuous.
Yakuts or Sakha are a Turkic ethnic group who mainly live in the Republic of Sakha in the Russian Federation, with some extending to the Amur, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, and the Taymyr and Evenk Districts of the Krasnoyarsk region. The Yakut language belongs to the Siberian branch of the Turkic languages.
Olkhon is the third-largest lake island in the world. It is by far the largest island in Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia, with an area of 730 km2 (280 sq mi). Structurally, it constitutes the southwestern margin of the Academician Ridge. The island measures 71.5 km (44.4 mi) in length and 20.8 km (12.9 mi) in width.
The Tarim mummies are a series of mummies discovered in the Tarim Basin in present-day Xinjiang, China, which date from 1800 BCE to the first centuries BCE, with a new group of individuals recently dated to between c. 2100 and 1700 BCE. The Tarim population to which the earliest mummies belonged was agropastoral, and they lived circa 2000 BCE in what was formerly a freshwater environment, which has now become desertified.
Fa Hien Cave, also Pahiyangala Cave, is situated in the district of Kalutara, Western Province, Sri Lanka and according to a rural legend, named after an alleged resident during historical times, namely Buddhist monk Faxian. However, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to support this legend. Nonetheless, the site is of archaeological significance as Late Pleistocene human fossilized skeletal remains were discovered in the cave's sediments during excavations in the 1960s, the 1980s and in 2013. This is the largest natural stone cave in South Asia. 3500 people can stay here at the same time. To see the size of the cave, you have to go inside and look outside. Prehistoric humans have lived here for 35000-60000 years.They used sea fish, salt, and shark teeth as ornaments. This limestone was formed by corrosion over hundreds of thousands of years.
The Prehistory of Siberia is marked by several archaeologically distinct cultures. In the Chalcolithic, the cultures of western and southern Siberia were pastoralists, while the eastern taiga and the tundra were dominated by hunter-gatherers until the Late Middle Ages and even beyond. Substantial changes in society, economics and art indicate the development of nomadism in the Central Asian steppes in the first millennium BC.
The Glazkov culture, Glazkovo culture, or Glazkovskaya culture, was an archaeological culture in the Lake Baikal area during the Early Bronze Age.
Okunev culture, sometimes also Okunevo culture, was a south Siberian archaeological culture of pastoralists of the early Bronze Age dated from the end of the 3rd millennium BC to the early of the 2nd millennium BC in the Minusinsk Basin on the middle and upper Yenisei. It was formed from the local Neolithic Siberian forest cultures, who also show evidence of admixture from Western Steppe Herders and pre-existing Ancient North Eurasians.
The Slab-Grave culture is an archaeological culture of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Mongolia. The Slab-Grave culture formed one of the primary ancestral components of the Xiongnu, as revealed by genetic evidence. The ethnogenesis of Turkic peoples and the modern Mongolian people is, at least partially, linked to the Slab-Grave culture by historical and archaeological evidence. and further corroborated by genetic research on the Slab Grave remains.
The Proto-Uralic homeland is the hypothetical place where speakers of the Proto-Uralic language lived in a single linguistic community, or complex of communities, before this original language dispersed geographically and divided into separate distinct languages. Various locations have been proposed to be the Proto-Uralic homeland.
Jon M. Erlandson is an archaeologist, professor emeritus in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Oregon, and the former director of the University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History. Erlandson’s research interests include coastal adaptations, the peopling of North America, maritime archaeology and historical ecology and human impacts in coastal ecosystems.
The Southern Siberian rainforest is an area of temperate rainforest in South Central Siberia that occurs primarily along the Altai and Sayan mountain ranges in Khakassia and Tuva as well as a small area in the Khamar-Daban Mountains near Lake Baikal in Buryatia. The forest encompasses a total area of approximately 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi). The larger portion of the forest in the Altai and Sayan Mountains runs across a latitude range that encompasses between 51.5 degrees to 56 degrees north latitude, and a longitude range running between 86 degrees to 95 degrees east longitude. The region overlaps with the Golden Mountains of Altai World Heritage Site. Ecological zones range from hemiboreal forest to a forest-steppe ecotone and include a wider variety of plant species than surrounding areas.
Reindeer in Russia include tundra and forest reindeer and are subspecies of Rangifer tarandus. Tundra reindeer include the Novaya Zemlya (R.t.pearsoni) and Sápmi subspecies and the Siberian tundra reindeer.
Laang Spean refers to a prehistoric cave site on top of a limestone hill in Battambang Province, north-western Cambodia. The site's name Cave of Bridges hints to the many limestone arches that remain after the partial collapse of the cave's vault. Although excavations are still in progress, at least three distinct levels of ancient human occupation are already documented. At the site's deepest layers, around 5 meters below the ground, primitive flaked stone tools were unearthed, dating back to around 71,000 years BP. Of great interest are above layers that contain records of the Hoabinhian whose stratigraphic and chronological context has yet to be defined. Future excavations at Laang Spean might help to clarify the concept and "nature of the Hoabinhian" occupation and provide new data on the Pleistocene/Holocene transition in the region
In archaeogenetics, the term Ancient North Eurasian (ANE) is the name given to an ancestral component that represents the lineage of the people of the Mal'ta–Buret' culture (c. 24,000 BP) and populations closely related to them, such as the Upper Paleolithic individuals from Afontova Gora in Siberia. Genetic studies indicate that the ANE are closely related to the Ancient North Siberians (ANS) represented by two ancient specimens from the preceding Yana Culture (c. 32,000 BP). The ANE can either be considered to descend from the earlier ANS population, or that both ANE and ANS are closely related, albeit differentiated, sister lineages, with both having originated from an 'Early West Eurasian' hunter-gatherer lineage (represented by Kostenki-14, c. 40,000 BP), which absorbed an 'Early East Eurasian' population (represented by the Tianyuan man, c. 40,000 BP). The ANS and ANE each derive between 16% to one third of their ancestry from an Early East Eurasian lineage and between two thirds to 84% from an Early West Eurasian lineage.
The Lothagam North Pillar Site, registered as GeJi9, is an archaeological site at Lothagam on the west side of Lake Turkana in Kenya dating to the Pastoral Neolithic and the Holocene. It is a communal cemetery, built between 3000 BCE and 2300 BCE by the region's earliest herders as rainfall in the area decreased and Lake Turkana receded. It is thought to be eastern Africa's largest and earliest monumental cemetery.
In archaeogenetics, the term Ancient Northeast Asian (ANA), also known as Amur ancestry, is the name given to an ancestral component that represents the lineage of the hunter-gatherer people of the 7th-4th millennia before present, in far-eastern Siberia, Mongolia and the Baikal regions. They are inferred to have diverged from Ancient East Asians about 24kya ago, and are represented by several ancient human specimens found in archaeological excavations east of the Altai Mountains. They are a sub-group of the Ancient Northern East Asians (ANEA).
Note: Bold font indicates BAP project members.
defended over the course of BAP