Bibliography of wild animal suffering

Last updated December 30, 2025

This bibliography of wild animal suffering lists books, chapters, essays, journal articles, theses, news and magazine pieces, and other publications on the topic. It includes works on the causes and scale of suffering among free-living animals, debates about its ethical significance, and proposals for responses ranging from non-intervention to targeted assistance.

Bibliographies and reference lists

Stafforini, Pablo (2013-06-06). "Wild animal welfare: a bibliography". Pablo's miscellany.
Dorado, Daniel (2015-11-02). "Ethical Interventions in the Wild. An Annotated Bibliography". Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism. 3 (2): 219–238. doi: 10.7358/rela-2015-002-dora . ISSN 2280-9643.
"Publications about wild animal suffering". Animal Ethics. 2018-04-30.
"The situation of animals in the wild bibliography". Animal Ethics. 2018-08-02.
"Helping animals in the wild bibliography". Animal Ethics. 2018-08-05.

Books and chapters

Hume, David (1779). Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (2nd ed.). London. p. 176.
Paley, William (1879) [1802]. Paxton, James; Ware, John (eds.). Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity. New York: Sheldon & Company.
Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc (1807). Natural History: Containing a Theory of the Earth, a General History of Man, of the Brute Creation, and of Vegetables, Minerals, &c. &c. &c. London: H. D. Symonds.
Gompertz, Lewis (1992) [1824]. Singer, Peter (ed.). Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes. Fontwell: Centaur Press.
Gompertz, Lewis (1852). Fragments in Defence of Animals, and Essays on Morals, Soul, and Future State. London: W. Horsell. p. 18.
Mill, John Stuart (1874). "Nature". Three Essays on Religion. London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer. pp. 28, 32, 65.
Salt, Henry Stephens; Leffingwell, Albert (1894). "The Case of Wild Animals". Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress. New York, London: Macmillan & Co. pp. 36–42.
Moore, J. Howard (1899). Better-World Philosophy: A Sociological Synthesis. Chicago: The Ward Waugh Company.
Moore, J. Howard (1906). The Universal Kinship. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co. pp. 249–250.
Moore, J. Howard (1912). Ethics and Education. London: G. Bell & Sons.
Hornaday, William T. (1913). Our Vanishing Wild Life: Its Extermination and Preservation. New York: New York Zoological Society.
Hornaday, William T. (1922). The Minds and Manners of Wild Animals: A Book of Personal Observations. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Simpson, Keith (1979). Schultz, Martin (ed.). The Mysteries of Life & Death: An Illustrated Investigation into the Incredible World of Death. London: Salamander Books. p. 22.
Sapontzis, Steve F. (1987). Morals, Reason, and Animals. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-0-87722-493-8.
Rolston III, Holmes (1988). Environmental Ethics: Duties To and Values in the Natural World. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 978-0-87722-501-0.
Darwin, Charles (September 1993). Barlow, Nora (ed.). The Autobiography of Charles Darwin: 1809–1882. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31069-6.
Dawkins, Richard (1995). River Out of Eden: A Darwinian View of Life. London: Orion Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-297-81540-2.
Rinpoche, Patrul (1998). The Words of My Perfect Teacher (Revised ed.). Shambhala. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-1-57062-412-4.
Mayerfeld, Jamie (1999). Suffering and Moral Responsibility. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-19-515495-5.
Schopenhauer, Arthur (2000). Parerga and Paralipomena: Short Philosophical Essays. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 292. ISBN 978-0-19-924221-4.
Belshaw, Christopher (2001). Environmental Philosophy . McGill-Queen's Press. p. xii. ISBN 978-1-902683-21-8.
Leonardo da Vinci (2004-01-01). The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci — Complete. Translated by Richter, Jean Paul. folio 1219.
Cooper, David E.; James, Simon P. (2005). Buddhism, Virtue and Environment. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 119–120. ISBN 978-1-351-95431-0.
Nussbaum, Martha C. (2006). Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04157-8. OCLC 434003841.
Minelli, Alessandro (2008). "Predation". In Jørgensen, Sven Erik; Fath, Brian D. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-093116-6. OCLC 527382954.
Murray, Michael J. (2008). Nature Red in Tooth and Claw: Theism and the Problem of Animal Suffering. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923727-2. OCLC 209815655.
Leopardi, Giacomo (2013). "4511". Zibaldone: The Notebooks of Leopardi. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-196200-9.
McMahan, Jeff (2013). "The Moral Problem of Predation" (PDF). In Chignell, Andrew; Cuneo, Terence; Halteman, Matt (eds.). Philosophy Comes to Dinner: Arguments on the Ethics of Eating. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-80683-1.
Botzler, Richard G.; Brown, Richard N. (2014). Foundations of Wildlife Diseases. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p. 378. ISBN 978-0-520-27609-3.
Singer, Peter (2014). The Point of View of The Universe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-19-960369-5.
Comstock, Gary (2016). "Two Views of Animals in Environmental Ethics" (PDF). In Borchert (ed.). Philosophy: Environmental Ethics (Donald M. ed.). Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale. pp. 151–183.
Reese, Jacy (2018). "The Expanding Moral Circle, Revisited". The End of Animal Farming: How Scientists, Entrepreneurs, and Activists Are Building an Animal-Free Food System. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-1945-0.
Cochrane, Alasdair (2018-10-18). Sentientist Politics. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198789802.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-878980-2.
Trindade, Gabriel Garmendia da (2020). Trindade, Gabriel Garmendia da; Woodhall, Andrew (eds.). Intervention or Protest: Acting for Nonhuman Animals. Vernon Press. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-62273-975-2.
Schneider, John R. (2020). "Facing the Darwinian Problem of Evil". Animal Suffering and the Darwinian Problem of Evil (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–47. doi:10.1017/9781108767439.003. ISBN 978-1-108-76743-9. S2CID 238121342.
Duclos, Joshua S. (2022). Wilderness, Morality, and Value. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-6669-0136-8. OCLC 1330426290.
Faria, Catia (2022). Animal Ethics in the Wild. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-00-910063-2.
Horta, Oscar (2022-06-23). Making a Stand for Animals. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003285922. ISBN 978-1-003-28592-2.
Faria, Catia (2024-05-02). "Wild Animal Ethics" . The Routledge Companion to Gender and Animals. London: Routledge. pp. 255–263. doi:10.4324/9781003273400-19. ISBN 978-1-003-27340-0.
Johannsen, Kyle (2025). Positive Duties to Wild Animals. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-289818-6.

Essays

Olivier, David (1993-06-01). "Pourquoi je ne suis pas écologiste" [Why I am not an environmentalist]. Les Cahiers antispécistes (in French).
Næss, Arne (2005). "Should We Try to Relieve Clear Cases of Suffering in Nature?" (PDF). In Drengson, Alan (ed.). The Selected Works of Arne Naess. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 2391–2400. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4519-6_99. ISBN 978-1-4020-4519-6.
Horta, Oscar (2015-01-05). "Why the Situation of Animals in the Wild Should Concern Us". Animal Charity Evaluators.
McMahan, Jeff (2010-09-19). "The Meat Eaters". Opinionator. New York Times.
McMahan, Jeff (2010-09-28). "Predators: A Response". Opinionator. The New York Times.
Wilcox, Christie (2011-12-04). "Bambi or Bessie: Are wild animals happier?". Scientific American.
Ray, Georgia (2017-06-29). "How Many Wild Animals Are There?". Wild-Animal Suffering Research. Archived from the original on 2021-04-13.
Verchot, Manon. "Meet the people who want to turn predators into herbivores". Treehugger.
Reese, Jacy (2015-12-14). "Wild animals endure illness, injury, and starvation. We should help". Vox.
Robbins, Jim (2017-04-11). "The Fear Factor: How the Peril of Predators Can Transform a Landscape". Yale E360.
Nadler, Steven (2018-08-10). "We have an ethical obligation to relieve individual animal suffering". Aeon.
Sebo, Jeff (2020-01-15). "All we owe to animals". Aeon.
Monbiot, George (2020-02-19). "I shot a deer – and I still believe it was the ethical thing to do". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077.
Olvera, Lola (2020-03-25). "When Natural Disaster Strikes, Wildlife Pays A Heavy Price". Sentient Media.
Tomasik, Brian (2020-05-24) [July 2009]. "The Importance of Wild-Animal Suffering". Center on Long-Term Risk.
Matthews, Dylan (2021-04-12). "The wild frontier of animal welfare". Vox.

Journal articles and academic papers

Herder, Johann Gottfried (1801). "The Animal Kingdom: In Relation to the History of Man". The Union Magazine, and Imperial Register. 2: 172.
Evans, Edward Payson (September 1894). "Ethical Relations Between Man and Beast". Popular Science Monthly. 45: 646.
Fiske, W. F. (1910-02-01). "Superparasitism: an Important Factor in the Natural Control of Insects". Journal of Economic Entomology. 3 (1): 88–97. doi:10.1093/jee/3.1.88. ISSN 0022-0493.
Smith, Allen G.; Webster, Harry R. (1955). "Effects of Hail Storms on Waterfowl Populations in Alberta, Canada: 1953". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 19 (3): 368–374. doi:10.2307/3797388. ISSN 0022-541X. JSTOR 3797388.
Callicott, J. Baird (1980-11-01). "Animal Liberation: A Triangular Affair" (PDF). Environmental Ethics. doi:10.5840/enviroethics19802424. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-05-09.
Sagoff, Mark (1984). "Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics: Bad Marriage, Quick Divorce". Osgoode Hall Law Journal. 22 (2): 297–307. doi: 10.60082/2817-5069.1936 .
Scott, Marilyn E. (1988). "The Impact of Infection and Disease on Animal Populations: Implications for Conservation Biology" . Conservation Biology. 2 (1): 40–56. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00334.x. ISSN 1523-1739.
Hettinger, Ned (1994). "Valuing Predation in Rolston's Environmental Ethics" (PDF). Environmental Ethics. 16 (1): 3–20. doi:10.5840/enviroethics199416138. S2CID 18428255. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-02-25.
Moriarty, Paul; Mark Woods (1997). "Hunting ≠ Predation". Environmental Ethics. 19 (4): 391–404. doi:10.5840/enviroethics19971945.
Everett, Jennifer (2001). "Environmental Ethics, Animal Welfarism, and the Problem of Predation: A Bambi Lover's Respect for Nature". Ethics & the Environment. 6 (1): 42–67. ISSN 1085-6633. JSTOR 40339003.
Calvete, C.; Estrada, R.; Villafuerte, R.; Osácar, J. J.; Lucientes, J. (2002). "Epidemiology of viral haemorrhagic disease and myxomatosis in a free-living population of wild rabbits" . Veterinary Record. 150 (25): 776–782. doi:10.1136/vr.150.25.776. ISSN 2042-7670. PMID 12135072. S2CID 7084943.
Cowen, Tyler (2003). "Policing Nature" (PDF). Environmental Ethics. 25 (2): 169–182. doi:10.5840/enviroethics200325231. S2CID 16279915. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-10-29.
Rödel, H. G.; Bora, A.; Kaetzke, P.; Khaschei, M.; Hutzelmeyer, H.; von Holst, D. (August 2004). "Over-winter survival in subadult European rabbits: weather effects, density dependence, and the impact of individual characteristics" . Oecologia. 140 (4): 566–576. doi:10.1007/s00442-004-1616-1. ISSN 0029-8549. PMID 15309616. S2CID 40720075.
Harris, J. B.; Goonetilleke, A. (2004-09-01). "Animal poisons and the nervous system: what the neurologist needs to know". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 75 (suppl 3): iii40 –iii46. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2004.045724 . PMC 1765666 . PMID 15316044.
Matheny, Gaverick; Chan, Kai M. A. (December 2005). "Human Diets and Animal Welfare: the Illogic of the Larder" . Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 18 (6): 579–594. doi:10.1007/s10806-005-1805-x. ISSN 1187-7863. S2CID 154198751.
James, Simon P. (2006-02-01). "Buddhism and the Ethics of Species Conservation" . Environmental Values. 15 (1): 85–97. doi:10.3197/096327106776678942.
Morris, Michael C.; Thornhill, Richard H. (2006-01-01). "Animal Liberationist Responses to Non-Anthropogenic Animal Suffering" (PDF). Worldviews: Global Religions, Culture, and Ecology. 10 (3): 372–375. doi:10.1163/156853506778942077. ISSN 1363-5247.
Sanderson, Katharine (2007-01-04). "Hot waters make it hard for fish to breathe". Nature: news070101–5. doi: 10.1038/news070101-5 . ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 129050854.
Raterman, Ty (Winter 2008). "An Environmentalist's Lament on Predation" (PDF). Environmental Ethics. 30 (4): 417–434. doi:10.5840/enviroethics200830443.
Beldomenico, Pablo M; Telfer, Sandra; Gebert, Stephanie; Lukomski, Lukasz; Bennett, Malcolm; Begon, Michael (2008-08-07). "Poor condition and infection: a vicious circle in natural populations". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1644): 1753–1759. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0147. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 2453294 . PMID 18448414.
Gregory, T. Ryan (December 2009). "The Argument from Design: A Guided Tour of William Paley's Natural Theology (1802)". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 2 (4): 602–611. doi: 10.1007/s12052-009-0184-6 . ISSN 1936-6434.
Kemmerer, Lisa (April 2009). "Hindu Ethics and Nonhuman Animals". Swadharam Journal. 3: 32–45.
Pedatella, Stefan (2009-03-01). "Images of Animal Predation in Giacomo Leopardi's Dialogo della Natura e di un Islandese". Italian Culture. 27 (1): 25–42. doi:10.1179/155909009X401665. ISSN 0161-4622. S2CID 159793645.
Simmons, Aaron (2009). "Animals, Predators, The Right to Life and The Duty to Save Lives" . Ethics & the Environment. 14 (1): 15–27. doi:10.2979/ete.2009.14.1.15. S2CID 89542818.
Aaltola, Elisa (February 2010). "Animal Ethics and the Argument from Absurdity". Environmental Values. 19 (1): 79–98. doi:10.3197/096327110X485392. S2CID 144779771.
Robar, Nicholas; Burness, Gary; Murray, Dennis L. (2010). "Tropics, trophics and taxonomy: the determinants of parasite-associated host mortality" . Oikos. 119 (8): 1273–1280. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0706.2009.18292.x. ISSN 1600-0706.
Goodman, Brett A.; Johnson, Pieter T. J. (2011-05-25). "Disease and the Extended Phenotype: Parasites Control Host Performance and Survival through Induced Changes in Body Plan". PLOS ONE. 6 (5) e20193. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020193 . PMC 3102088 . PMID 21633498.
Weidman, T.; Litvaitis, J. A. (2011-07-01). "Can supplemental food increase winter survival of a threatened cottontail rabbit?" . Biological Conservation. 144 (7): 2054–2058. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.04.027. ISSN 0006-3207.
Ebert, Rainer (2012). "Innocent Threats and the Moral Problem of Carnivorous Animals". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 29 (2): 146–159. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.2012.00561.x.
Nelson, Michael P.; Vucetich, John A. (2013-02-01), "Wilderness, Value of" (PDF), in Lafollette, Hugh (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Ethics, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, doi:10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee645, ISBN 978-1-4051-8641-4
China, Victor; Holzman, Roi (2014-06-03). "Hydrodynamic starvation in first-feeding larval fishes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (22): 8083–8088. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1323205111 . PMC 4050599 . PMID 24843180.
Zuiddam, Benno (July 2014). "2nd Century Church Fathers: God will make lions vegetarian again". Creation. 36 (3): 46–47.
Faria, Catia (May 2015). "Making a Difference on Behalf of Animals Living in the Wild: Interview with Jeff McMahan" (PDF). Relations. 3 (1): 81–84. doi: 10.7358/rela-2015-001-fari . ISSN 2283-3196.
Faria, Catia; Paez, Eze (2015-05-11). "Animals in Need: the Problem of Wild Animal Suffering and Intervention in Nature". Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism. 3 (1): 7–13. ISSN 2280-9643.
Paez, Eze (2015-11-02). "Refusing Help and Inflicting Harm. A Critique of the Environmentalist View". Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism. 3 (2): 165–178. doi: 10.7358/rela-2015-002-paez . ISSN 2280-9643.
Moen, Ole Martin (2016-05-09). "The ethics of wild animal suffering". Etikk I Praksis - Nordic Journal of Applied Ethics. 10 (1): 91–104. doi: 10.5324/eip.v10i1.1972 . ISSN 1890-4009.
Keulartz, Jozef (2016-10-01). "Should the Lion Eat Straw Like the Ox? Animal Ethics and the Predation Problem". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 29 (5): 813–834. doi: 10.1007/s10806-016-9637-4 . hdl: 2066/161423 .
Shooster, Jay (2017-07-11). "Legal Personhood and the Positive Rights of Wild Animals". Wild-Animal Suffering Research. Archived from the original on 2020-12-04.
Ray, Georgia (2017-11-22). "Parasite Load and Disease in Wild Animals". Wild-Animal Suffering Research. Archived from the original on 2021-06-12.
Delon, Nicolas; Purves, Duncan (2018-04-01). "Wild Animal Suffering is Intractable" . Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 31 (2): 239–260. doi:10.1007/s10806-018-9722-y. S2CID 158886418.
Libersat, Frederic; Kaiser, Maayan; Emanuel, Stav (2018). "Mind Control: How Parasites Manipulate Cognitive Functions in Their Insect Hosts". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 572. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00572 . ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 5938628 . PMID 29765342.
McShane, Katie (2018). "Why Animal Welfare Is Not Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services, or Human Welfare: Toward a More Complete Assessment of Climate Impacts" (PDF). Les ateliers de l'éthique / The Ethics Forum. 13 (1): 43–64. doi: 10.7202/1055117ar . ISSN 1718-9977.
Groff, Zach; Ng, Yew-Kwang (2019-06-18). "Does suffering dominate enjoyment in the animal kingdom? An update to welfare biology". Biology & Philosophy. 34 (4): 40. doi:10.1007/s10539-019-9692-0. ISSN 1572-8404. S2CID 196683974.
Knight, Kelli; Wick, Peach van (2019). "Medical and Surgical Management of Deer and Relatives" . Medical Management of Wildlife Species. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: 259–270. doi:10.1002/9781119036708.ch20. ISBN 978-1-119-03670-8. S2CID 208578632.
Hopster, Jeroen (2019-12-01). "The Speciesism Debate: Intuition, Method, and Empirical Advances". Animals. 9 (12): 1054. doi: 10.3390/ani9121054 . PMC 6940905 . PMID 31805715.
Zanette, Liana Y.; Clinchy, Michael (2019-05-06). "Ecology of fear". Current Biology. 29 (9): R309 –R313. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.02.042 . PMID 31063718. S2CID 145049061.
Zanette, Liana Y.; Hobbs, Emma C.; Witterick, Lauren E.; MacDougall-Shackleton, Scott A.; Clinchy, Michael (2019-08-07). "Predator-induced fear causes PTSD-like changes in the brains and behaviour of wild animals". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 11474. doi: 10.1038/s41598-019-47684-6 . PMC 6685979 . PMID 31391473.
Bruers, Stijn (2020-10-22). "Speciesism, Arbitrariness and Moral Illusions" . Philosophia. 49 (3): 957–975. doi:10.1007/s11406-020-00282-7. ISSN 0048-3893. S2CID 226346638.
Povinelli, Daniel J. (2020-11-01). "Can Comparative Psychology Crack its Toughest Nut?" (PDF). Animal Behavior and Cognition. 7 (4): 589–652. doi: 10.26451/abc.07.04.09.2020 .
Paez, Eze (2020-01-01). "Preserving nature for the benefit of all sentient individuals". Animal Sentience. 4 (27). doi: 10.51291/2377-7478.1551 . hdl: 10230/57029 . ISSN 2377-7478.
Gutiérrez, Jara; De Miguel, Javier (2021-06-26). "Fires in nature: a review of the challenges for wild animals". European Journal of Ecology. 7 (1). doi:10.17161/eurojecol.v7i1.14643. ISSN 1339-8474.
Mousavirad, Seyyed Jaaber (2022-07-02). "Theory of Compensation and Problem of Evil; a New Defense". European Journal for Philosophy of Religion. 14 (2). doi:10.24204/ejpr.2022.3357. ISSN 1689-8311.
Walker, Jack (June 2022). "Born to be Wild? On 'Wildness' Objections to Preventing Wild Animal Suffering" (PDF). Aporia. 32 (1).

Theses and dissertations

Faria, Catia (2016). Animal Ethics Goes Wild: The Problem of Wild Animal Suffering and Intervention in Nature (PDF) (PhD thesis). Universitat Pompeu Fabra.
Duclos, Joshua (2018). Value, morality, and wilderness (Thesis). Boston University.

News and magazine articles

Sekar, Sandhya (2015-05-22). "Parasitoid wasps may be the most diverse animal group". BBC Earth.
Bonnardel, Yves (2016-08-22). "Yves Bonnardel: l'antispéciste qui n'aimait pas la nature" [Yves Bonnardel: The Anti-Speciesist Who Didn’t Like Nature]. Usbek&Rica (in French).
Ruiz Carreras, María (2016-11-04). "'La lucha por la igualdad y la justicia es necesariamente feminista y antiespecista'" [The fight for equality and justice is necessarily feminist and antispeciesist]. Diagonal (in Spanish).
Muraille, Eric (2018-07-23). "Debate: Could anti-speciesism and veganism form the basis for a rational society?". The Conversation.
Elbaum, Rachel; Eckardt, Andy (2018-08-16). "Wildlife, animals suffer in Europe's summer of extreme heat". NBC News.
Amos, Jonathan (2019-04-24). "Antarctica: Thousands of emperor penguin chicks wiped out". BBC News.
Sharman, Jon (2019-08-20). "Thousands of birds killed after freak weather event leaves them with smashed skulls and internal damage". The Independent.
Robbins, Jim (2020-03-19). "With Temperatures Rising, Can Animals Survive the Heat Stress?". Yale E360.
Zhang, Sarah (2020-05-26). "America's Never-Ending Battle Against Flesh-Eating Worms". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 2025-03-07.
Canon, Gabrielle (2021-09-10). "How a Tahoe refuge saved owls, coyotes and raccoons from wildfire". The Guardian.
Klein, Alice (2022-09-19). "There are 20,000,000,000,000,000 ants crawling all over Earth". New Scientist.

Online resources

"Antagonism in nature: Interspecific conflict". Animal Ethics.
"Antagonism in nature: Intraspecific fights". Animal Ethics.
"Malnutrition and Starvation". Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
"Malnutrition, hunger and thirst in wild animals". Animal Ethics.
"Parasitoids". Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.
"Physical injuries in wild animals". Animal Ethics.
"Predators, parasites and parasitoids". The Australian Museum.
"Weather conditions and nonhuman animals". Animal Ethics.
"Wild Animal Suffering — The scale, the problem, and why it matters". wildanimalsuffering.org.
"Why wild animal suffering matters". Animal Ethics.

Primary documents and correspondence

Darwin, Charles (1860-05-22). "To Asa Gray". Letter to Asa Gray.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.