Black yeast

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Black yeasts, sometimes also black fungi, dematiaceous fungi, microcolonial fungi or meristematic fungi [1] is a diverse group of slow-growing microfungi which reproduce mostly asexually (fungi imperfecti). Only few genera reproduce by budding cells, while in others hyphal or meristematic (isodiametric) reproduction is preponderant. [2] [3] [4] [5] Black yeasts share some distinctive characteristics, in particular a dark colouration (melanisation) of their cell wall. Morphological plasticity, incrustation of the cell wall with melanins and presence of other protective substances like carotenoids and mycosporines [6] represent passive physiological adaptations which enable black fungi to be highly resistant against environmental stresses. [7] The term "polyextremotolerance" has been introduced to describe this phenotype, an example of which is the species Aureobasidium pullulans . [8] Presence of 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in the cell wall [9] confers to the microfungi their characteristic olivaceous to dark brown/black colour.

The consortium comprises two phylogenetically very different fungal groups. [10] [11] Many are found in the orders Capnodiales, Dothideales, and Pleosporales (class Dothideomycetes). These black fungi mostly have an extremotolerant life style. Many representatives of this group can colonize bare rocks, e.g. in the Mediterranean basin or in hot and cold dry deserts, and are therefore referred to as rock-inhabiting fungi, [10] [11] or occur in salterns. [12] These black yeasts are believed to be the most resistant eukaryotic organisms known to-date. [7] They were firstly described in the early 80s by three almost concomitant seminal research articles. [13] [14] [15] Members of Chaetothyriales (class Eurotiomycetes) [10] [11] are found in hydrocarbon-rich environments or in nutrient-poor, moist indoor environments, and may occur as opportunistic pathogens of vertebrate hosts, such as Exophiala (Wangiella) dermatitidis. [16] Several species are associated with lichens [17] [18] as well as other phototrophs [19] and sometimes with ants in specific ant-fungi associations. [20]

In recent years, black fungi such as E. dermatitidis or Hortaea werneckii have attracted increasingly attention as model microorganisms in studies on astrobiology, [21] bioremediation of polluted ecosystems by biofiltration, [22] effect of ionizing radiation in contaminated areas, [23] [24] biodeterioration of materials, [25] [26] and mechanisms of adaptation to high salt concentrations. [12] A collaborative effort coordinated by the Broad Institute is currently ongoing to sequence the genomes of several black fungi to shed light into their ecology, phylogeny and pathogenicity.[ citation needed ]

In 2011, a research paper about occurrence of potentially pathogenic black fungi in household dishwashers [27] was partially misreported by the media and went viral.[ citation needed ]

Black yeasts are not related to the edible cloud ear fungus Auricularia polytricha. [10] [11]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dothideomycetes</span> Class of fungi

Dothideomycetes is the largest and most diverse class of ascomycete fungi. It comprises 11 orders 90 families, 1,300 genera and over 19,000 known species. Wijayawardene et al. in 2020 added more orders to the class.

<i>Aureobasidium pullulans</i> Species of fungus

Aureobasidium pullulans is a ubiquitous and generalistic black, yeast-like fungus that can be found in different environments. It is well known as a naturally occurring epiphyte or endophyte of a wide range of plant species without causing any symptoms of disease. A. pullulans has a high importance in biotechnology for the production of different enzymes, siderophores and pullulan. Furthermore, A. pullulans is used in biological control of plant diseases, especially storage diseases.

Exophiala jeanselmei is a saprotrophic fungus in the family Herpotrichiellaceae. Four varieties have been discovered: Exophiala jeanselmei var. heteromorpha, E. jeanselmei var. lecanii-corni, E. jeanselmei var. jeanselmei, and E. jeanselmei var. castellanii. Other species in the genus Exophiala such as E. dermatitidis and E. spinifera have been reported to have similar annellidic conidiogenesis and may therefore be difficult to differentiate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pleosporales</span> Order of fungi

The Pleosporales is the largest order in the fungal class Dothideomycetes. By a 2008 estimate, it contained 23 families, 332 genera and more than 4700 species. The majority of species are saprobes on decaying plant material in fresh water, marine, or terrestrial environments, but several species are also associated with living plants as parasites, epiphytes or endophytes. The best studied species cause plant diseases on important agricultural crops e.g. Cochliobolus heterostrophus, causing southern corn leaf blight on maize, Phaeosphaeria nodorum causing glume blotch on wheat and Leptosphaeria maculans causing a stem canker on cabbage crops (Brassica). Some species of Pleosporales occur on animal dung, and a small number occur as lichens and rock-inhabiting fungi.

<i>Hortaea werneckii</i> Species of fungus

Hortaea werneckii is a species of yeast in the family Teratosphaeriaceae. It is a black yeast that is investigated for its remarkable halotolerance. While the addition of salt to the medium is not required for its cultivation, H. werneckii can grow in close to saturated NaCl solutions. To emphasize this unusually wide adaptability, and to distinguish H. werneckii from other halotolerant fungi, which have lower maximum salinity limits, some authors describe H. werneckii as "extremely halotolerant".

Moniliella is a genus of fungi in the subdivision Ustilaginomycotina. It is in the monotypic family MoniliellaceaeQ.M. Wang, F.Y. Bai & Boekhout, which is in the monotypic order MoniliellalesQ.M. Wang, F.Y. Bai & Boekhout which is in the monotypic class MoniliellomycetesQ.M. Wang, F.Y. Bai & Boekhout.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wallemiomycetes</span> Class of fungi

The Wallemiomycetes are a class of fungi in the division Basidiomycota. It consists of the single order Wallemiales, containing the single family Wallemiaceae, which in turn contains the single genus Wallemia. The phylogenetic origin of the lineage was placed to various parts of Basidiomycota, but according to the analysis of a larger dataset it is a sister group of Agaricomycotina. The genus contains species of xerophilic molds that are found worldwide. The seven described species are distinguished by conidial size, xerotolerance, halotolerance, chaotolerance, growth temperature regimes, extracellular enzyme activity profiles, and secondary metabolite patterns. They are typically isolated from low-moisture foods, indoor air dust, salterns and soil. W. sebi is thought to be one of the causes of the hypersensitivity pneumonitis known as the farmer's lung disease, but since the other species were recognised and separated from W. sebi only recently, their role in the disease cannot be excluded.

<i>Exophiala dermatitidis</i> Species of fungus

Exophiala dermatitidis is a thermophilic black yeast, and a member of the Herpotrichiellaceae. While the species is only found at low abundance in nature, metabolically active strains are commonly isolated in saunas, steam baths, and dish washers. Exophiala dermatitidis only rarely causes infection in humans, however cases have been reported around the world. In East Asia, the species has caused lethal brain infections in young and otherwise healthy individuals. The fungus has been known to cause cutaneous and subcutaneous phaeohyphomycosis, and as a lung colonist in people with cystic fibrosis in Europe. In 2002, an outbreak of systemic E. dermatitidis infection occurred in women who had received contaminated steroid injections at North Carolina hospitals.

Cladosporium dominicanum is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has globoid conidia. It has also been found in plant material.

Cladosporium psychrotolerans is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It grows well at 4 °C but not at 30 °C, and has ornamented, globoid conidia with long digitate projections.

Cladosporium velox is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has globoid conidia. It has also been found in plant material.

Cladosporium spinulosum is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has spherical, ornamented conidia with long digitate (finger-like) projections.

Cladosporium halotolerans is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has globoid conidia. It has also been isolated from bathrooms and in a dolphin.

Cladosporium fusiforme is a fungus found in hypersaline environments. It has ovoid to ellipsoid conidia. It has also been found in animal feed.

Previously classified under the species complex Aureobasidium pullulans, Aureobasidium subglaciale is a black yeast-like, extremophile, ascomycete fungus that is found in extreme cold habitats. The species was originally isolated from subglacial ice of arctic glaciers. The first isolate of this species was obtained from subglacial ice of the Norwegian island Spitsbergen, one of the coldest places inhabited by humans. of Genomic data collected from specimens in the Aureobasidium pullulans complex justified distinction of four different species

<i>Teratosphaeriaceae</i> Family of fungi

Teratosphaeriaceae is a family of fungi in the order Mycosphaerellales.

Aureobasidium melanogenum, formerly known as Aureobasidium pullulans var. melanogenum is a ubiquitous black, yeast-like fungus that is found mainly in freshwater habitats. The species also includes strains causing human infections, which were previously classified as A. pullulans. It was named due to abundant melanin production and accumulation in the cell walls, which leads to dark green, brown or black appearance of the cells and colonies The species was established when the genomes of the four former varieties of Aureobasidium pullulans were sequenced and the large differences between them were discovered.

Aureobasidium namibiae, formerly known as Aureobasidium pullulans var. namibiae is a ubiquitous black, yeast-like fungus. It was described on the basis of only one strain isolated from dolomitic marble in Namibia. The species was established when the genomes of the four former varieties of Aureobasidium pullulans were sequenced and the large differences between them were discovered.

<i>Exophiala phaeomuriformis</i> Species of fungus

Exophiala phaeomuriformis is thermophilic fungus belonging to the genus Exophiala and the family Herpotrichiellaceae. it is a member of the group of fungi known as black yeasts, and is typically found in hot and humid locations, such as saunas, bathrooms, and dishwashers. This species can cause skin infections and is typically classified as a Biosafety Risk Group 2 agent.

Fungal genomes are among the smallest genomes of eukaryotes. The sizes of fungal genomes range from less than 10 Mbp to hundreds of Mbp. The average genome size is approximately 37 Mbp in Ascomycota, 47 Mbp in Basidiomycota and 75 Mbp in Oomycota. The sizes and gene numbers of the smallest genomes of free-living fungi such as those of Wallemia ichthyophaga, Wallemia mellicola or Malassezia restricta are comparable to bacterial genomes. The genome of the extensively researched yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains approximately 12 Mbp and was the first completely sequenced eukaryotic genome. Due to their compact size fungal genomes can be sequenced with less resources than most other eukaryotic genomes and are thus important models for research. Some fungi exist as stable haploid, diploid, or polyploid cells, others change ploidy in response to environmental conditions and aneuploidy is also observed in novel environments or during periods of stress.

References

  1. ↑ Sterflinger, Katja (2006). "Black Yeasts and Meristematic Fungi: Ecology, Diversity and Identification". In Rosa, Carlos; Gábor, Péter (eds.). Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts. The Yeast Handbook. pp. 501–14. doi:10.1007/3-540-30985-3_20. ISBN   978-3-540-26100-1.
  2. ↑ Sudhadham, M.; Prakitsin, S.; Sivichai, S.; Chaiyarat, R.; Dorrestein, G. M.; Menken, S.B.J.; De Hoog, G.S. (2008). "The neurotropic black yeast Exophiala dermatitidis has a possible origin in the tropical rain forest". Studies in Mycology. 61: 145–55. doi:10.3114/sim.2008.61.15. PMC   2610309 . PMID   19287537.
  3. ↑ de Hoog, GS; Hermanides-Nijhof, EJ (1977). "The Black Yeasts and Allied Hyphomycetes". Studies in Mycology. 15: 1–222. OCLC   222951121.
  4. ↑ Butinar, Lorena; Sonjak, Silva; Zalar, Polona; Plemenitaš, Ana; Gunde-Cimerman, Nina (2005). "Melanized halophilic fungi are eukaryotic members of microbial communities in hypersaline waters of solar salterns". Botanica Marina. 48. doi:10.1515/BOT.2005.007. S2CID   12181468.
  5. ↑ Matos, T; De Hoog, GS; De Boer, AG; De Crom, I; Haase, G (2002). "High prevalence of the neurotrope Exophiala dermatitidis and related oligotrophic black yeasts in sauna facilities". Mycoses. 45 (9–10): 373–7. doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0507.2002.00779.x . PMID   12421284. S2CID   4842988.
  6. ↑ Gorbushina, A.A.; Kotlova, E.R.; Sherstneva, O.A. (2008). "Cellular responses of microcolonial rock fungi to long-term desiccation and subsequent rehydration". Studies in Mycology. 61: 91–7. doi:10.3114/sim.2008.61.09. PMC   2610304 . PMID   19287531.
  7. 1 2 Gostinčar, Cene; Grube, Martin; De Hoog, Sybren; Zalar, Polona; Gunde-Cimerman, Nina (2010). "Extremotolerance in fungi: Evolution on the edge". FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 71 (1): 2–11. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.2009.00794.x . PMID   19878320.
  8. ↑ Gostinčar, C.; Grube, M.; Gunde-Cimerman, N. (2011). "Evolution of Fungal Pathogens in Domestic Environments?". Fungal Biology. 115 (10): 1008–1018. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2011.03.004. PMID   21944213.
  9. ↑ Kogej, Tina; Wheeler, Michael H; Lanišnik Rižner, Tea; Gunde-Cimerman, Nina (2004). "Evidence for 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene melanin in three halophilic black yeasts grown under saline and non-saline conditions". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 232 (2): 203–9. doi: 10.1016/S0378-1097(04)00073-4 . PMID   15033240.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Gueidan, C.; Villasenor, C. R.; De Hoog, G. S.; Gorbushina, A. A.; Untereiner, W. A.; Lutzoni, F. (2008). "A rock-inhabiting ancestor for mutualistic and pathogen-rich fungal lineages". Studies in Mycology. 61: 111–9. doi:10.3114/sim.2008.61.11. PMC   2610302 . PMID   19287533.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Ruibal, C.; Gueidan, C.; Selbmann, L.; Gorbushina, A.A.; Crous, P.W.; Groenewald, J.Z.; Muggia, L.; Grube, M.; Isola, D.; Schoch, C.L.; Staley, J.T.; Lutzoni, F.; De Hoog, G.S. (2010). "Phylogeny of rock-inhabiting fungi related to Dothideomycetes". Studies in Mycology. 64: 123–133S7. doi:10.3114/sim.2009.64.06. PMC   2816969 . PMID   20169026.
  12. 1 2 Plemenitaš, A.; Vaupotič, T.; Lenassi, M.; Kogej, T.; Gunde-Cimerman, N. (2008). "Adaptation of extremely halotolerant black yeast Hortaea werneckii to increased osmolarity: A molecular perspective at a glance". Studies in Mycology. 61: 67–75. doi:10.3114/sim.2008.61.06. PMC   2610308 . PMID   19287528.
  13. ↑ Staley, J. T.; Palmer, F.; Adams, J. B. (1982). "Microcolonial Fungi: Common Inhabitants on Desert Rocks?". Science. 215 (4536): 1093–5. Bibcode:1982Sci...215.1093S. doi:10.1126/science.215.4536.1093. PMID   17771840. S2CID   9032744.
  14. ↑ Krumbein, W. E.; Jens, K. (1981). "Biogenic rock varnishes of the negev desert (Israel) an ecological study of iron and manganese transformation by cyanobacteria and fungi". Oecologia. 50 (1): 25–38. Bibcode:1981Oecol..50...25K. doi:10.1007/BF00378791. PMID   28310059. S2CID   27020398.
  15. ↑ Friedmann, E. I. (1982). "Endolithic Microorganisms in the Antarctic Cold Desert". Science. 215 (4536): 1045–53. Bibcode:1982Sci...215.1045I. doi:10.1126/science.215.4536.1045. PMID   17771821. S2CID   42255976.
  16. ↑ De Hoog GS, Guarro J, Gené J, Figueras MJ (2009). Atlas of Clinical Fungi, third ed. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
  17. ↑ Muggia, Lucia; Gueidan, Cecile; Knudsen, Kerry; Perlmutter, Gary; Grube, Martin (2012). "The Lichen Connections of Black Fungi". Mycopathologia. 175 (5–6): 523–35. doi:10.1007/s11046-012-9598-8. PMID   23161018. S2CID   14170265.
  18. ↑ Harutyunyan, S.; Muggia, L.; Grube, M. (2008). "Black fungi in lichens from seasonally arid habitats". Studies in Mycology. 61: 83–90. doi:10.3114/sim.2008.61.08. PMC   2610299 . PMID   19287530.
  19. ↑ Gostinčar, Cene; Muggia, Lucia; Grube, Martin (2012). "Polyextremotolerant black fungi: Oligotrophism, adaptive potential, and a link to lichen symbioses". Frontiers in Microbiology. 3: 390. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00390 . PMC   3492852 . PMID   23162543.
  20. ↑ Voglmayr, Hermann; Mayer, Veronika; Maschwitz, Ulrich; Moog, Joachim; Djieto-Lordon, Champlain; Blatrix, Rumsaïs (2011). "The diversity of ant-associated black yeasts: Insights into a newly discovered world of symbiotic interactions". Fungal Biology. 115 (10): 1077–91. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2010.11.006. PMID   21944219.
  21. ↑ Onofri, S.; Barreca, D.; Selbmann, L.; Isola, D.; Rabbow, E.; Horneck, G.; De Vera, J.P.P.; Hatton, J.; Zucconi, L. (2008). "Resistance of Antarctic black fungi and cryptoendolithic communities to simulated space and Martian conditions". Studies in Mycology. 61: 99–109. doi:10.3114/sim.2008.61.10. PMC   2610303 . PMID   19287532.
  22. ↑ Prenafeta-Boldú, Francesc X.; Summerbell, Richard; Sybren De Hoog, G. (2006). "Fungi growing on aromatic hydrocarbons: Biotechnology's unexpected encounter with biohazard?". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 30 (1): 109–30. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2005.00007.x. PMID   16438682.
  23. ↑ Robertson, Kelly L.; Mostaghim, Anahita; Cuomo, Christina A.; Soto, Carissa M.; Lebedev, Nikolai; Bailey, Robert F.; Wang, Zheng (2012). Nielsen, Kirsten (ed.). "Adaptation of the Black Yeast Wangiella dermatitidis to Ionizing Radiation: Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms". PLOS ONE. 7 (11): e48674. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...748674R. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048674 . PMC   3490873 . PMID   23139812.
  24. ↑ Dadachova, Ekaterina; Bryan, Ruth A.; Huang, Xianchun; Moadel, Tiffany; Schweitzer, Andrew D.; Aisen, Philip; Nosanchuk, Joshua D.; Casadevall, Arturo (2007). Rutherford, Julian (ed.). "Ionizing Radiation Changes the Electronic Properties of Melanin and Enhances the Growth of Melanized Fungi". PLOS ONE. 2 (5): e457. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..457D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000457 . PMC   1866175 . PMID   17520016.
  25. ↑ Cappitelli, F.; Nosanchuk, J. D.; Casadevall, A.; Toniolo, L.; Brusetti, L.; Florio, S.; Principi, P.; Borin, S.; Sorlini, C. (2006). "Synthetic Consolidants Attacked by Melanin-Producing Fungi: Case Study of the Biodeterioration of Milan (Italy) Cathedral Marble Treated with Acrylics". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 73 (1): 271–7. doi:10.1128/AEM.02220-06. PMC   1797126 . PMID   17071788.
  26. ↑ Gorbushina, A. A.; Krumbein, W. E.; Hamman, C. H.; Panina, L.; Soukharjevski, S.; Wollenzien, U. (1993). "Role of black fungi in color change and biodeterioration of antique marbles". Geomicrobiology Journal. 11 (3–4): 205–221. Bibcode:1993GmbJ...11..205G. doi:10.1080/01490459309377952.
  27. ↑ Zalar, P.; Novak, M.; De Hoog, G.S.; Gunde-Cimerman, N. (2011). "Dishwashers – A man-made ecological niche accommodating human opportunistic fungal pathogens". Fungal Biology. 115 (10): 997–1007. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2011.04.007. PMID   21944212 . Retrieved June 20, 2011.
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