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A biosensor is an analytical device,used for the detection of a chemical substance,that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector. The sensitive biological element,e.g. tissue,microorganisms,organelles,cell receptors,enzymes,antibodies,nucleic acids,etc.,is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts with,binds with,or recognizes the analyte under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be created by biological engineering. The transducer or the detector element,which transforms one signal into another one,works in a physicochemical way:optical,piezoelectric,electrochemical,electrochemiluminescence etc.,resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological element,to easily measure and quantify. The biosensor reader device connects with the associated electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way. This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device,however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive element. The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to suit the different working principles of biosensors.
Nanosensors are nanoscale devices that measure physical quantities and convert these to signals that can be detected and analyzed. There are several ways proposed today to make nanosensors;these include top-down lithography,bottom-up assembly,and molecular self-assembly. There are different types of nanosensors in the market and in development for various applications,most notably in defense,environmental,and healthcare industries. These sensors share the same basic workflow:a selective binding of an analyte,signal generation from the interaction of the nanosensor with the bio-element,and processing of the signal into useful metrics.
An optical ring resonator is a set of waveguides in which at least one is a closed loop coupled to some sort of light input and output. The concepts behind optical ring resonators are the same as those behind whispering galleries except that they use light and obey the properties behind constructive interference and total internal reflection. When light of the resonant wavelength is passed through the loop from the input waveguide,the light builds up in intensity over multiple round-trips owing to constructive interference and is output to the output bus waveguide which serves as a detector waveguide. Because only a select few wavelengths will be at resonance within the loop,the optical ring resonator functions as a filter. Additionally,as implied earlier,two or more ring waveguides can be coupled to each other to form an add/drop optical filter.
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is a phenomenon that occurs where electrons in a thin metal sheet become excited by light that is directed to the sheet with a particular angle of incidence,and then travel parallel to the sheet. Assuming a constant light source wavelength and that the metal sheet is thin,the angle of incidence that triggers SPR is related to the refractive index of the material and even a small change in the refractive index will cause SPR to not be observed. This makes SPR a possible technique for detecting particular substances (analytes) and SPR biosensors have been developed to detect various important biomarkers.
Allen Taflove was a full professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering of Northwestern's McCormick School of Engineering,since 1988. Since 1972,he pioneered basic theoretical approaches,numerical algorithms,and applications of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) computational solutions of Maxwell's equations. He coined the descriptors "finite difference time domain" and "FDTD" in the 1980 paper,"Application of the finite-difference time-domain method to sinusoidal steady-state electromagnetic penetration problems." In 1990,he was the first person to be named a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in the FDTD area. Taflove was the recipient of the 2014 IEEE Electromagnetics Award with the following citation:"For contributions to the development and application of finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) solutions of Maxwell's equations across the electromagnetic spectrum." He was a Life Fellow of the IEEE and a Fellow of the Optical Society (OSA). His OSA Fellow citation reads:"For creating the finite-difference time-domain method for the numerical solution of Maxwell's equations,with crucial application to the growth and current state of the field of photonics."
Vladimir (Vlad) M. Shalaev is a Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Scientific Director for Nanophotonics at Birck Nanotechnology Center,Purdue University.
Tuan Vo-Dinh is R. Eugene and Susie E. Goodson Professor of Biomedical Engineering at the Duke University Pratt School of Engineering and professor of Chemistry and director of the Fitzpatrick Institute for Photonics at Duke.
A slot-waveguide is an optical waveguide that guides strongly confined light in a subwavelength-scale low refractive index region by total internal reflection.
Bio-layer interferometry (BLI) is an optical biosensing technology that analyzes biomolecular interactions in real-time without the need for fluorescent labeling. Alongside Surface Plasmon Resonance,BLI is one of few widely available label-free biosensing technologies,a detection style that yields more information in less time than traditional processes. The technology relies on the phase shift-wavelength correlation created between interference patterns off of two unique surfaces on the tip of a biosensor. BLI has significant applications in quantifying binding strength,measuring protein interactions,and identifying properties of reaction kinetics,such as rate constants and reaction rates.
A plasmonic metamaterial is a metamaterial that uses surface plasmons to achieve optical properties not seen in nature. Plasmons are produced from the interaction of light with metal-dielectric materials. Under specific conditions,the incident light couples with the surface plasmons to create self-sustaining,propagating electromagnetic waves known as surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs). Once launched,the SPPs ripple along the metal-dielectric interface. Compared with the incident light,the SPPs can be much shorter in wavelength.
Stephen Arnold is a Professor of Physics and Chemical Engineering and the Thomas Potts Professor of Physics at the NYU Tandon School of Engineering. He is also an Othmer-Potts Senior Faculty Fellow. The focus of Arnold's research is developing ultra-sensitive bio-sensors and detection of single bio-nanoparticles from virus down to single protein molecules,using Whispering-gallery wave bio-sensors.
A field-effect transistor-based biosensor,also known as a biosensor field-effect transistor,field-effect biosensor (FEB),or biosensor MOSFET,is a field-effect transistor that is gated by changes in the surface potential induced by the binding of molecules. When charged molecules,such as biomolecules,bind to the FET gate,which is usually a dielectric material,they can change the charge distribution of the underlying semiconductor material resulting in a change in conductance of the FET channel. A Bio-FET consists of two main compartments:one is the biological recognition element and the other is the field-effect transistor. The BioFET structure is largely based on the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET),a type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane,electrolyte solution,and reference electrode.
Surface plasmon resonance microscopy (SPRM),also called surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRI),is a label free analytical tool that combines the surface plasmon resonance of metallic surfaces with imaging of the metallic surface. The heterogeneity of the refractive index of the metallic surface imparts high contrast images,caused by the shift in the resonance angle. SPRM can achieve a sub-nanometer thickness sensitivity and lateral resolution achieves values of micrometer scale. SPRM is used to characterize surfaces such as self-assembled monolayers,multilayer films,metal nanoparticles,oligonucleotide arrays,and binding and reduction reactions. Surface plasmon polaritons are surface electromagnetic waves coupled to oscillating free electrons of a metallic surface that propagate along a metal/dielectric interface. Since polaritons are highly sensitive to small changes in the refractive index of the metallic material,it can be used as a biosensing tool that does not require labeling. SPRM measurements can be made in real-time,such as measuring binding kinetics of membrane proteins in single cells,or DNA hybridization.
John X. J. Zhang is a tenured professor at Thayer School of Engineering of Dartmouth College,and an investigator in the Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center. Before joining Dartmouth,he was an associate professor with tenure in the Department of Biomedical Engineering at the University of Texas(UT Austin). He received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Stanford University,California in 2004,and was a research scientist in systems biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) before joining the faculty at UT Austin in 2005. Zhang is a Fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering (AIMBE),and a recipient of the 2016 NIH Director's Transformative Research Award.
Laura M. Lechuga Gómez is a Spanish scientist who is a biosensor researcher and full professor. She leads the Nanobiosensors and Bioanalytical Application Group at the Catalan Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ICN2).
Ester H. Segal is an Israeli nanotechnology researcher and professor in the Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology,where she heads the Laboratory for Multifunctional Nanomaterials. She is also affiliated with the Russell Berrie Nanotechnology Institute at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology. Segal is a specialist in porous silicon nanomaterials,as well as nanocomposite materials for active packaging technologies to extend the shelf life of food.
Sharon M. Weiss is an American professor of electrical engineering and physics at Vanderbilt University. Weiss has been awarded a Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE),an NSF CAREER award,an ARO Young Investigator Award,and the 2016–2017 IEEE Photonics Society Distinguished Lecturer award for her teaching and fundamental and applied research on silicon-based optical biosensing,silicon photonics for optical communication,and hybrid and nanocomposite material systems. She is the Cornelius Vanderbilt Chair in Engineering at Vanderbilt University,in addition to the Director of the Vanderbilt Institute of Nanoscale Science and Engineering (VINSE).
Hatice Altug is a Turkish physicist and professor in the Bioengineering Department and head of the Bio-nanophotonic Systems laboratory at École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),in Switzerland. Her research focuses on nanophotonics for biosensing and surface enhanced spectroscopy,integration with microfluidics and nanofabrication,to obtain high sensitivity,label-free characterization of biological material. She has developed low-cost biosensor allowing the identification of viruses such as Ebola that can work in difficult settings and therefore particularly useful in case of pandemics.
Photonic crystal sensors use photonic crystals:nanostructures composed of periodic arrangements of dielectric materials that interact with light depending on their particular structure,reflecting lights of specific wavelengths at specific angles. Any change in the periodicity or refractive index of the structure can give rise to a change in the reflected color,or the color perceived by the observer or a spectrometer. That simple principle makes them useful colorimetric intuitive sensors for different applications including,but not limited to,environmental analysis,temperature sensing,magnetic sensing,biosensing,diagnostics,food quality control,security,and mechanical sensing. Many animals in nature such as fish or beetles employ responsive photonic crystals for camouflage,signaling or to bait their prey. The variety of materials utilizable in such structures ranging from inorganic,organic as well as plasmonic metal nanoparticles makes these structures highly customizable and versatile. In the case of inorganic materials,variation of the refractive index is the most commonly exploited effect in sensing,while periodicity change is more commonly exhibited in polymer-based sensors. Besides their small size,current developments in manufacturing technologies have made them easy and cheap to fabricate on a larger scale,making them mass-producible and practical.
Dr. Shalini Prasad is a biological engineer,Cecil H. and Ida Green Professor of Systems Biology Science,and head of the Bioengineering Department at The University of Texas at Dallas. She was elected to the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering College of Fellows in February 2022 "for pioneering contributions in engineering sweat wearables for disease tracking and management for chronic diseases and prognostic monitoring in pandemics." Dr. Shalini Prasad has had a number of faculty positions at many universities. She is the co-founder of a small technology company called EnLiSense LLC. And her research consists of developing technology to monitor individuals to benefit the health industry.
References
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- ↑ "New Forms of Microscopy Enable By Nanostructured Surfaces".
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- ↑ "AAAS Fellows".
- ↑ "National Academy of Inventors Fellows". Archived from the original on 2019-06-21. Retrieved 2020-01-31.
- ↑ "OSA Fellows 2014".
- ↑ "AIMBE Fellow Directory".
- ↑ "2010 Sensors Council Awards".
- ↑ "Brian T. Cunningham Named Distinguished Lecturer for IEEE Photonics Society".
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- ↑ "Juno Therapeutics Acquires X-Body for $44M+". 2 June 2015.
- ↑ "Center for Innovative Instrumentation Technology (CiiT)".
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- ↑ Cunningham, B. T.; Guido, L. J.; Baker, J. E.; Major, J. S.; Holonyak, N.; Stillman, G. E. (1989). "Carbon diffusion in undoped, n-type, and p-type GaAs". Applied Physics Letters. 55 (7): 687–689. Bibcode:1989ApPhL..55..687C. doi:10.1063/1.101822.
- ↑ "Surface-enhanced Raman nanodomes".
- ↑ Zhuo, Yue; Cunningham, Brian (2015). "Label-Free Biosensor Imaging on Photonic Crystal Surfaces". Sensors. 15 (9): 21613–21635. Bibcode:2015Senso..1521613Z. doi: 10.3390/s150921613 . PMC 4610529 . PMID 26343684. S2CID 2294726.
- ↑ Cunningham, B. T.; Li, P.; Schulz, S.; Lin, B.; Baird, C.; Gerstenmaier, J.; Genick, C.; Wang, F.; Fine, E.; Laing, L. (2004). "Label-free assays on the BIND system". Journal of Biomolecular Screening. 9 (6): 481–90. doi: 10.1177/1087057104267604 . PMID 15452334.
- ↑ Cunningham, Brian; Zangar, Richard. "Photonic Crystal Enhanced Fluorescence: Development of Sensors Structures and Det".
- ↑ "Photonics crystal-enhanced microscopy".
- ↑ Cunningham, B. T.; Zhang, M.; Zhuo, Y.; Kwon, L.; Race, C. (2015). "Recent Advances in Biosensing With Photonic Crystal Surfaces: A Review". IEEE Sensors Journal. 16 (10): 3349–3366. doi:10.1109/JSEN.2015.2429738. PMC 5021450 . PMID 27642265.
- ↑ Gallegos, D.; Long, K. D.; Yu, H.; Clark, P. P.; Lin, Y.; George, S.; Nath, P.; Cunningham, B. T. (2013). "Label-free biodetection using a smartphone". Lab on a Chip. 13 (11): 2124–32. doi:10.1039/c3lc40991k. PMID 23609514.
- ↑ "Digital-resolution detection of microRNA with single-base selectivity by photonic resonator absorption microscopy".