Canine leishmaniasis

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A dog displaying a typical clinical picture of visceral leishmaniasis CanineVisceralLeishmaniasis.png
A dog displaying a typical clinical picture of visceral leishmaniasis

Canine leishmaniasis (LEESH-ma-NIGH-ah-sis) is a zoonotic disease (see human leishmaniasis) caused by Leishmania parasites transmitted by the bite of an infected phlebotomine sandfly. There have been no documented cases of leishmaniasis transmission from dogs to humans. Canine leishmaniasis was first identified in Europe in 1903, and in 1940, 40% of all dogs in Rome were determined to be positive for leishmaniasis. [1] Traditionally thought of as a disease only found near the Mediterranean basin, 2008 research claims new findings are evidence that canine leishmaniasis is currently expanding in continental climate areas of northwestern Italy, far from the recognized disease-endemic areas along the Mediterranean coasts. [2] Cases of leishmaniasis began appearing in North America in 2000, [3] and, as of 2008, Leishmania-positive foxhounds have been reported in 22 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. [4]

Contents

Forms and symptoms

Cutaneous

Especially if there are other leishmania lesions, such as hair loss, on the same leg.

Visceral

Cause

Numerous strains and subgenus strains of Leishmania exist; with sandfly genome projects still underway, strains are still being discovered. [6]

In the Old World, leishmaniasis transmitted by sandflies of the genus Phlebotomus documented in dogs are:

New World leishmaniasis strains are spread by Lutzomyia ; however, research speculates the North American sandfly could be capable of spreading, but this is to date unconfirmed. Dogs are known reservoirs of L. infantum, and the spread of disease from dog to dog has been confirmed in the United States.

The Mexicana (L. mexicana, L. amazonensis, L. venezuelensis, and L. pifanoi) and Viannia (L. braziliensis, L. guyanensis, L. panamensis and L. peruviana) strains are not commonly found in dogs. Subgenus Viannia strains are found only in Central and South America, all of which cause leishmaniasis in humans. [9]

Transmission

Traditionally, canine transmission is directly from sandfly to dog. Cases in the United States have proven L. infantum transmission from dog to dog by direct contamination with blood and secretions, as well as transplacentally from an infected bitch to her pups. [10] This mode of transmission seems to be unique to the L. infantum Mon1 strain found in the United States. Although in utero transmission is likely the predominant method of disease spread amount the L. infantum Mon1 strain, it is still a viable parasite (has not lost virulence factors associated with sandfly-uptake) which can be transmitted via sandfly bite. [11] A Brazilian study of 63 puppies from 18 L. donovani-infected parents found no evidence of congential or transplacental infection. [4]

Diagnosis

In the United States, certain breed clubs are strongly recommending screening for Leishmania, especially in imported breeding stock from endemic locations. For reasons yet unidentified the Foxhound and Neapolitan Mastiff seem to be predisposed or at higher risk for disease. [3] [12] The Italian Spinone Club of America is also requesting all breeders and owners to submit samples for testing; the club reported 150 Spinone Italiano dogs have tested positive in the United States. [13]

In the United States, the following veterinary colleges and government bodies assist with testing and treatment of Leishmania-positive dogs:

Diagnostic testing includes molecular biology and genetic techniques which provide high accuracy and high sensitivity/specificity. The most commonly employed methods in medical laboratories include Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays, aka ELISA (among other serological assays) and DNA amplification via Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) method for detecting Leishmania DNA is a highly sensitive and specific test, producing accurate results in a relatively short amount of time. A study completed in which Foxhounds were tested using PCR showed that approximately 20% of the tested dogs were positive for leishmaniasis; the same population tested with serological/antibody assays showed only 5% positive. [16]

Diagnosis can be complicated by false positives caused by the leptospirosis vaccine and false negatives caused by testing methods lacking sufficient sensitivity.

Prevention

In areas where the known vector is a sandfly, deltamethrin collars worn by the dogs has been proven to be 86% effective. [17] The sandfly is most active at dusk and dawn; keeping dogs indoors during those peak times will help minimize exposure.

Unfortunately, there is no one answer for leishmaniasis prevention, nor will one vaccine cover multiple species. "Different virulence factors have been identified for distinct Leishmania species, and there are profound differences in the immune mechanisms that mediate susceptibility/resistance to infection and in the pathology associated with disease." [18]

In 2003, Fort Dodge Wyeth released the Leshmune vaccine in Brazil for L. donovani (also referred to as kala-azar in Brazil). [19] Studies indicated up to 87% protection. [20] Most common side effects from the vaccine have been noted as anorexia and local swelling. [20] The president of the Brazil Regional Council of Veterinary Medicine, Marcia Villa, warned since vaccinated dogs develop antibodies, they can be difficult to distinguish from asymptomatic, infected dogs. [21] Studies also indicate the Leshmune vaccine may be reliable in treating L. chagasi, and a possible treatment for dogs already infected with L. donovani. [22] [23] Vaccination and immunotherapy may also be a treatment for ongoing L. infantum infection in dogs. [24] [25] [26]

Treatment

Currently, no cure exists for canine leishmaniasis, but various treatment options are available in different countries. Treatment is best coordinated with veterinary research hospitals. Treatment does vary by geographic area, strain of infection and exhibited symptoms. Dogs can be asymptomatic for years. Most common treatments include:

L. donovani

L. infantum [27]

Research directions

In the United States, research examining the Foxhound and Neapolitan Mastiff is scheduled to continue into 2011 at the University of Iowa. The goals of this project are to screen for the presence of the Leishmania parasite DNA and to be a stepping stone to future research of T-cell function with the hopes of understanding canine leishmaniasis as a model for better understanding human leishmaniasis.

Also in the United States, the CDC is monitoring Italian Spinones, with no end date indicated on sample submissions.

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Leishmania</i> Genus of parasitic flagellate protist

Leishmania is a parasitic protozoan, a single-celled organism of the genus Leishmania that is responsible for the disease leishmaniasis. They are spread by sandflies of the genus Phlebotomus in the Old World, and of the genus Lutzomyia in the New World. At least 93 sandfly species are proven or probable vectors worldwide. Their primary hosts are vertebrates; Leishmania commonly infects hyraxes, canids, rodents, and humans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leishmaniasis</span> Disease caused by parasites of the Leishmania type

Leishmaniasis is a wide array of clinical manifestations caused by protozoal parasites of the Trypanosomatida genus Leishmania. It is generally spread through the bite of phlebotomine sandflies, Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia, and occurs most frequently in the tropics and sub-tropics of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and southern Europe. The disease can present in three main ways: cutaneous, mucocutaneous, or visceral. The cutaneous form presents with skin ulcers, while the mucocutaneous form presents with ulcers of the skin, mouth, and nose. The visceral form starts with skin ulcers and later presents with fever, low red blood cell count, and enlarged spleen and liver.

<i>Lutzomyia</i> Genus of flies

Lutzomyia is a genus of phlebotomine sand flies consisting of nearly 400 species, at least 33 of which have medical importance as vectors of human disease. Species of the genus Lutzomyia are found only in the New World, distributed in southern areas of the Nearctic and throughout the Neotropical realm. Lutzomyia is one of the two genera of the subfamily Phlebotominae to transmit the Leishmania parasite, with the other being Phlebotomus, found only in the Old World. Lutzomyia sand flies also serve as vectors for the bacterial Carrion's disease and a number of arboviruses.

<i>Phlebotomus</i> Genus of flies

Phlebotomus is a genus of "sand flies" in the Diptera family Psychodidae. In the past, they have sometimes been considered to belong in a separate family, Phlebotomidae, but this alternative classification has not gained wide acceptance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Canine parvovirus</span> Contagious virus mainly affecting dogs

Canine parvovirus is a contagious virus mainly affecting dogs and wolves. CPV is highly contagious and is spread from dog to dog by direct or indirect contact with their feces. Vaccines can prevent this infection, but mortality can reach 91% in untreated cases. Treatment often involves veterinary hospitalization. Canine parvovirus often infects other mammals including foxes, wolves, cats, and skunks. Felines (cats) are also susceptible to panleukopenia, a different strain of parvovirus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cutaneous leishmaniasis</span> Medical condition

Cutaneous leishmaniasis is the most common form of leishmaniasis affecting humans. It is a skin infection caused by a single-celled parasite that is transmitted by the bite of a phlebotomine sand fly. There are about thirty species of Leishmania that may cause cutaneous leishmaniasis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Visceral leishmaniasis</span> Human disease caused by protist parasites

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also known as kala-azar or "black fever", is the most severe form of leishmaniasis and, without proper diagnosis and treatment, is associated with high fatality. Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Leishmania.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Miltefosine</span> Phospholipid drug

Miltefosine, sold under the trade name Impavido among others, is a medication mainly used to treat leishmaniasis and free-living amoeba infections such as Naegleria fowleri and Balamuthia mandrillaris. This includes the three forms of leishmaniasis: cutaneous, visceral and mucosal. It may be used with liposomal amphotericin B or paromomycin. It is taken by mouth.

A canine vector-borne disease (CVBD) is one of "a group of globally distributed and rapidly spreading illnesses that are caused by a range of pathogens transmitted by arthropods including ticks, fleas, mosquitoes and phlebotomine sandflies." CVBDs are important in the fields of veterinary medicine, animal welfare, and public health. Some CVBDs are of zoonotic concern.

<i>Leishmania infantum</i> Species of parasitic protist

Leishmania infantum is the causative agent of infantile visceral leishmaniasis in the Mediterranean region and in Latin America, where it has been called Leishmania chagasi. It is also an unusual cause of cutaneous leishmaniasis, which is normally caused by specific lineages. Wild canids and domestic dogs are the natural reservoir of this organism. The sandfly species Lutzomyia longipalpis serves as the primary vector for the transmission of the disease.

<i>Leishmania major</i> Species of parasitic protist

Leishmania major is a species of parasite found in the genus Leishmania, and is associated with the disease zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis. L. major is an intracellular pathogen which infects the macrophages and dendritic cells of the immune system. Though Leishmania species are found on every continent aside from Antarctica, Leishmania major is found only in the Eastern Hemisphere, specifically in Northern Africa, the Middle East, Northwestern China, and Northwestern India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alan Fairlamb</span> British biochemist

Alan Hutchinson Fairlamb, CBE, FRSE, FLS, FMedSci, FRSB is a Wellcome Trust Principal Research Fellow and Professor of Biochemistry in the Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery at the School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Scotland. From 2006-2011 he was a member of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee of the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR) -- an independent global programme of scientific collaboration co-sponsored by UNICEF, UNDP, the World Bank and WHO. Currently he is a member of the governing board of the Tres Cantos Open Lab Foundation, whose aim is to accelerate the discovery and development of medicines to tackle diseases of the developing world in an open collaborative manner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protozoan infection</span> Parasitic disease caused by a protozoan

Protozoan infections are parasitic diseases caused by organisms formerly classified in the kingdom Protozoa. These organisms are now classified in the supergroups Excavata, Amoebozoa, Harosa, and Archaeplastida. They are usually contracted by either an insect vector or by contact with an infected substance or surface.

<i>Leishmania donovani</i> Species of intracellular parasite

Leishmania donovani is a species of intracellular parasites belonging to the genus Leishmania, a group of haemoflagellate kinetoplastids that cause the disease leishmaniasis. It is a human blood parasite responsible for visceral leishmaniasis or kala-azar, the most severe form of leishmaniasis. It infects the mononuclear phagocyte system including spleen, liver and bone marrow. Infection is transmitted by species of sandfly belonging to the genus Phlebotomus in Old World and Lutzomyia in New World. The species complex it represents is prevalent throughout tropical and temperate regions including Africa, China, India, Nepal, southern Europe, Russia and South America. The species complex is responsible for thousands of deaths every year and has spread to 88 countries, with 350 million people at constant risk of infection and 0.5 million new cases in a year.

<i>Leishmania tropica</i> Species of protozoan parasite

Leishmania tropica is a flagellate parasite and the cause of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans. This parasite is restricted to Afro-Eurasia and is a common cause of infection in Afghanistan, Iran, Syria, Yemen, Algeria, Morocco, and northern India.

Leishmania braziliensis is a Leishmania species found in South America. It is associated with leishmaniasis.

<i>Leishmania mexicana</i> Species of parasitic protist

Leishmania mexicana is a species of obligate intracellular parasites of the protozoan genus Leishmania. In Mexico and Central America, this parasite is the primary cause of cutaneous leishmaniasis.

<i>Lutzomyia longipalpis</i> Species of fly

Lutzomyia longipalpis is a species complex of sandfly belonging to the family Psychodidae. This species is primarily present in Central and South America, but has also appeared in Mexico. There have been reports of L. longipalpis as far south as Argentina, as they are found in a wide variety of ecological conditions. Both males and females feed on sugars from plants and aphids, but only adult females feed on the blood of other mammals. The species has recently begun appearing in urban areas throughout Brazil, and serves as a key vessel for the propagation of the parasite Leishmania infantum. The presence of these flies appears to be strongly correlated to the presence of domestic chickens in Latin America. The first major urban outbreak of the lethal Visceral leishmanias epidemic was detected in Teresina, Piauí State in the early 1980s following a massive planting of acacias.

Kala azar in India refers to the special circumstances of the disease kala azar as it exists in India. Kala azar is a major health problem in India with an estimated 146,700 new cases per year as of 2012. In the disease a parasite causes sickness after migrating to internal organs such as the liver, spleen and bone marrow. If left untreated the disease almost always results in the death. Signs and symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, anemia, and substantial swelling of the liver and spleen.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leishmaniasis vaccine</span> Vaccine against leishmaniasis

A Leishmaniasis vaccine is a vaccine which would prevent leishmaniasis. As of 2017, no vaccine for humans was available. Currently some effective leishmaniasis vaccines for dogs exist.

References

  1. ↑ Dereure J., Pratlong F., Dedet, J.P (1999) Geographical distribution and the identification of parasites causing canine leishmaniasis in the Mediterranean Basin. Canine leishmaniasis: an update. Proceedings of the International Canine Leishmaniasis Forum. Barcelona, Spain
  2. ↑ Ferroglio E, Maroli M, Gastaldo S, Mignone W, Rossi L (October 2005). "Canine leishmaniasis, Italy". Emerging Infect. Dis. 11 (10): 1618–20. doi:10.3201/eid1110.040966. PMC   3366729 . PMID   16318709.
  3. 1 2 Monti, Dean (June 2000). "Hunters hounded as leishmaniasis is diagnosed in Foxhounds". J Am Vet Med Assoc. 216 (12): 1887, 1890. PMID   10863579.
  4. 1 2 Rosypal, Alexa. (2005) Characterization of Canine Leishmaniasis in the United States: Pathogenesis, Immunological Responses, and Transmission of an American Isolate of Leishmania infantum. Veterinary Clinics of North America Small Animal Practice Journal. Blacksburg, VA.
  5. ↑ Gallego, Laia Solano (2013). "Manifestaciones clínicas cutáneas". Leishmaniosis. Una revisión actualizada (in Spanish). Servet. ISBN   978-8494138911.
  6. ↑ "Proposal for Sequencing the Genome of the Sand Flies, Lutzomyia longipalpis and Phlebotomus papatasi" (PDF). Genome.gov. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  7. ↑ Nawaratna S.S.K.; et al. (2009). "Cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka: a study of possible animal reservoirs". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 13 (4): 513–7. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2008.08.023 . PMID   19095480.
  8. ↑ Duprey Z.H.; et al. (2006). "Canine visceral leishmaniasis, United States and Canada, 2000-2003". Emerging Infect. Dis. 12 (3): 440–6. doi:10.3201/eid1203.050811. PMC   3291440 . PMID   16704782.
  9. ↑ "Pathogens". Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 30 April 2006.
  10. ↑ "Companion Animal Parasite Council". Capcvet.org. Archived from the original on 2012-02-13. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
  11. ↑ Schaut, Robert G.; Robles-Murguia, Maricela; Juelsgaard, Rachel; Esch, Kevin J.; Bartholomay, Lyric C.; Ramalho-Ortigao, Marcelo; Petersen, Christine A. (2015-12-01). "Vectorborne Transmission of Leishmania infantum from Hounds, United States". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 21 (12): 2209–2212. doi:10.3201/eid2112.141167. ISSN   1080-6059. PMC   4672406 . PMID   26583260.
  12. ↑ Petersen CHF paper 2008
  13. ↑ "Spinone Club of America Health Information - Spinoni Italiani". Archived from the original on 16 January 2008. Retrieved 30 April 2006.
  14. ↑ Prevention, CDC-Centers for Disease Control and. "CDC - Leishmaniasis - Leishmaniasis in Dogs FAQs". Cdc.gov. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  15. ↑ "Office of Biotechnology: Iowa State University". Biotech.iastate.edu. Archived from the original on 2013-10-16. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
  16. ↑ Petersen paper find notes
  17. ↑ Reithinger R, Teodoro U, Davies CR (2001). "Topical insecticide treatments to protect dogs from sand fly vectors of leishmaniasis". Emerging Infect. Dis. 7 (5): 872–6. doi:10.3201/eid0705.010516. PMC   2631889 . PMID   11747701.
  18. ↑ McMahon-Pratt D, Alexander J (October 2004). "Does the Leishmania major paradigm of pathogenesis and protection hold for New World cutaneous leishmaniases or the visceral disease?". Immunol. Rev. 201: 206–24. doi: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2004.00190.x . PMID   15361243. S2CID   23421726.
  19. ↑ Nogueira FS, Moreira MA, Borja-Cabrera GP, et al. (September 2005). "Leishmune vaccine blocks the transmission of canine visceral leishmaniasis: absence of Leishmania parasites in blood, skin and lymph nodes of vaccinated exposed dogs". Vaccine. 23 (40): 4805–10. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.05.011. PMID   16011864.
  20. 1 2 Parra LE, Borja-Cabrera GP, Santos FN, Souza LO, Palatnik-de-Sousa CB, Menz I (March 2007). "Safety trial using the Leishmune vaccine against canine visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil". Vaccine. 25 (12): 2180–6. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.11.057. PMID   17239495.
  21. ↑ "Authorized Use of Leishmaniasis Vaccine Made in Brazil - brazzil". www.brazzilmag.com. Archived from the original on 9 February 2005. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
  22. ↑ de Andrade RA, Reis AB, Gontijo CM, et al. (March 2007). "Clinical value of anti-Leishmania (Leishmania) chagasi IgG titers detected by flow cytometry to distinguish infected from vaccinated dogs". Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 116 (1–2): 85–97. doi:10.1016/j.vetimm.2007.01.002. PMID   17287029.
  23. ↑ Santos FN, Borja-Cabrera GP, Miyashiro LM, et al. (August 2007). "Immunotherapy against experimental canine visceral leishmaniasis with the saponin enriched-Leishmune vaccine". Vaccine. 25 (33): 6176–90. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.06.005. PMC   7115527 . PMID   17630055.
  24. ↑ Gonçalves, Ana Alice Maia; Leite, Jaqueline Costa; Resende, Lucilene Aparecida; Mariano, Reysla Maria da Silveira; Silveira, Patricia; Melo-Júnior, Otoni Alves de Oliveira; Ribeiro, Helen Silva; de Oliveira, Diana Souza; Soares, Diogo Fonseca; Santos, Thaiza Aline Pereira; Marques, Alexandre Ferreira; Galdino, Alexsandro Sobreira; Martins-Filho, Olindo Assis; Dutra, Walderez Ornelas; da Silveira-Lemos, Denise (2019-12-18). "An Overview of Immunotherapeutic Approaches Against Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis: What Has Been Tested on Dogs and a New Perspective on Improving Treatment Efficacy". Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 9: 427. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00427 . ISSN   2235-2988. PMC   6930146 . PMID   31921703.
  25. ↑ Baxarias, Marta; Martínez-Orellana, Pamela; Baneth, Gad; Solano-Gallego, Laia (2019). "Immunotherapy in clinical canine leishmaniosis: a comparative update". Research in Veterinary Science. 125: 218–226. doi:10.1016/j.rvsc.2019.06.009. PMID   31280121. S2CID   195830094.
  26. ↑ Araujo, Adjanna Karla Leite; Gondim, Adriana Leão de Carvalho Lima (2020-01-01). "Use of Immunotherapy in the Treatment of Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis". Acta Scientiae Veterinariae. 48. doi: 10.22456/1679-9216.105438 . ISSN   1679-9216.
  27. ↑ http://asmcourse.ivic.ve/articulos/urbina/urbina3.pdf [ permanent dead link ]
  28. ↑ Travi, Bruno L.; Miró, Guadalupe (2018-10-18). "Use of domperidone in canine visceral leishmaniasis: gaps in veterinary knowledge and epidemiological implications". Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 113 (11): e180301. doi:10.1590/0074-02760180301. ISSN   0074-0276. PMC   6193371 . PMID   30365645.
  29. ↑ "Christine A. Petersen | Iowa State University". Vetmed.iastate.edu. 2010-06-05. Archived from the original on 2012-11-14. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
  30. ↑ "Neapolitan Mastiff Study". Everythingneo.com. 2009-02-26. Archived from the original on 2012-09-15. Retrieved 2012-10-04.
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