Carnivals, known as carnavales, charangas, or parrandas, have been vibrant public celebrations in Cuba since at least the 17th century, with the Carnaval of Santiago de Cuba holding a special place among Cubans.[1]
The history of Carnival in Cuba is a complex interplay of diverse influences and interests. While some may emphasize its continuous historical connection with Africa, a deeper examination reveals that the carnival culture in Cuba has evolved over time, drawing from multicultural Cuban history.[2] Carnival reflects the dynamic power dynamics within Cuban society and serves as an expression of shifting power negotiations.
It is essential to recognize that carnival in Cuba is not solely rooted in African traditions but is a multifaceted cultural amalgamation that reflects the country's diverse heritage. Through the centuries, Cuban carnival has evolved, incorporating various elements from African, European, and other cultural influences, resulting in a unique and vibrant celebration that resonates with the Cuban people.
Origin of the Carnaval: Mamarrachos
Carnival, known as "carnaval" in Spanish, is a pre-Lenten festival that gained popularity in Spain during the middle of the 10th century. It was likely brought to Cuba by Hispanic colonists,[3] and has since become the foundation for traditional celebrations in the country, such as the Carnaval habanero. However, the Carnaval of Santiago de Cuba, which evolved from the former summer festivals known as the "mamarrachos",[4][note 1] is distinct from the pre-Lenten carnival celebrated in February or March.
The mamarrachos were festive events held on various days in summer, including June 24 (St. John's [Midsummer] Day), June 29 (St. Peter's Day), July 24 (St. Christine's Day), July 25 (St. James the Apostle's Day), and July 26 (St. Anne's Day). These celebrations were not religious in the liturgical sense they were intended to be. Instead, they were public occasions for jubilation and amusement, with festivities centered around music, dancing, and the consumption of alcoholic beverages.[6]
The precise origins of the mamarrachos are unclear, and the term "mamarrachos" itself does not appear in records until 1757. However, there are earlier records of the festivals dating back to 1679, and they likely existed even before that.[7] Two theories exist about their origin. One suggests that they gradually extended from more traditional European festivals, including carnaval,[note 2] while the other links the mamarrachos to the procession of St. James the Apostle, the patron saint of Santiago de Cuba.[8][9] These theories may not be mutually exclusive.
A typical 19th-century Mamarrachos
During the 19th century, the mamarrachos festivals in Santiago de Cuba were characterized by a variety of activities. These included animal-drawn carriages, bonfire building, pilgrimages to sanctuaries with torches, and the consumption of beverages like aguardiente, "Yara" rum, fruit juices, chocolate, soup, beer, and coffee. People also dressed in costumes and masks,[note 3] attended masked balls with music performed by the orquesta típica playing contradanzas, danzas, danzones, rigadoons, and waltzes. Refreshments were sold at mesitas, which were tables covered with awnings. Festival-goers engaged in versification with cantos de pullas, mocking songs often improvised by comparsas, small groups of revelers. The comparsas would also participate in spontaneous parades, and the festivities culminated with a grand parade called montompolo on the last day of mamarrachos, bidding farewell to the celebration.[11]
Comparsa
Comparsa in Santiago
The Carnaval of Santiago de Cuba is marked by various important festivities, with the parades or street performances of comparsas being the most significant. The term "comparsa" originates from the Italian word "comparire," meaning "to appear briefly" like a walk-on appearance in a theater. In the context of carnival or other festivals, comparsas refer to groups of musicians and dancers who perform in the streets.
Records of comparsas in connection with the mamarrachos of St. John and St. Peter date back to 1679, and the first recorded comparsa, "Los Alegrones," was active in 1757. During the 19th century, there were 46 active comparsas, each with its unique costumes and themes, as documented by Cuban historian Nancy Pérez.
In the 19th century, Pérez categorized the Santiagueran comparsas into two types: paseos and congas.[note 4][note 5]Paseos were distinguished by their orchestral music, scenography, and choreographed dance steps. They were usually accompanied by mobile versions of the danzoneras or orquestas típicas, or sometimes Spanish military bands.[note 6] On the other hand, congas were large gatherings of dancers who followed a selected theme, dancing rhythmically to mainly percussion instruments like drums and metal pans.
Congas mainly comprised humble individuals with limited means, while paseos tended to be more extravagant, requiring greater capital. The congas were known for their inventiveness[note 7] and played a pivotal role in shaping the unique music and dance styles that define the Carnaval of Santiago de Cuba.
Attitude of the colonial authorities to the Mamarracho tradition
During the colonial period, the mamarrachos were generally tolerated by the authorities in Santiago de Cuba. However, there were instances when they were forbidden due to abuses and disturbances caused during the festivities. For example, in 1788, restrictions were imposed due to abuses, and in 1794, because of the moral and physical damage they caused. In 1815 and 1816, the events were banned to prevent drunken coach-drivers and disorderly conduct among participants. In subsequent years, the mamarrachos faced restrictions for fear of disorder and to maintain the city's tranquility.[note 8]
Despite the tolerance, there were regulations on paper to govern the mamarrachos. In 1679, black slaves were prohibited from participating in comparsas with masked members, and black freedmen were not allowed to conceal their faces with paint or masks to prevent potential violent conflicts. In 1841, a proclamation by the Spanish Governor prohibited certain actions during the paseo, including riding horses or vehicles too fast, ridiculing others through speech, song, or verse, and wearing offensive costumes. Comparsa directors were required to seek permission before entering private properties,[note 9] and law officers were instructed to arrest violators, regardless of their status, and anyone carrying offensive arms under their costumes.
Similar proclamations were repeated in subsequent years until the end of the colonial period, reinforcing the regulation of the mamarrachos' festivities.
Opposition to the Mamarrachos
Throughout its history, the celebration of mamarrachos in Santiago de Cuba has been a subject of debate, with some advocating for regulation, reform, or even abolition of the festivities. As early as 1879, there were motions made in the Municipal Council to address the concerns surrounding mamarrachos:
One proposal called for the complete prohibition of mamarrachos,[note 10] as they were seen as ridiculous and detrimental to the city's moral and material interests. Another, more moderate suggestion, was to limit mamarrachos to specific days and locations and impose restrictions on offensive behavior and costumes.
Amidst the discussions, there were different perspectives on how to treat the mamarrachos tradition. Some wanted to preserve and civilize it, drawing parallels with European carnival celebrations. They proposed eliminating elements considered uncivilized, such as the use of dirty shoe polish or indecorous African elements. Instead, they aimed to educate and enlighten participants about appropriate behavior.
An editorial from La Independencia in 1908 expressed admiration for European traditions and suggested the need for purification of the mamarrachos by removing African and Afro-Cuban influences. However, it highlighted the authorities' limited efforts in regulating the festivities through repeated proclamations.
Winter Carnival vs. Summer Carnival
Mamarrachos, a traditional celebration in Santiago de Cuba, took place well after the sugar cane harvest, allowing unemployed workers, mainly African and mulatto slaves and freedmen, to participate in the festivities.[note 11] Originally intended as a period of rest and diversion for the lower classes, mamarrachos were permitted by Spanish colonial authorities, who believed it would distract the slaves from more subversive activities.
In the present day, Carnival is celebrated on July 18-27 in Havana, Matanzas, and Santiago de Cuba, in honor of the Revolution, with the final parade held on July 26.[citation needed]. In the past, there were two types of Carnival celebrations in Santiago. The Winter Carnival, held in February or March and supported by exclusive organizations, catered to the well-to-do minority of the population with European-style masquerade balls.[note 12]
On the other hand, the Summer Carnaval or Carnaval Santiaguero originated during the slavery period and catered to the lower classes, including African and Afro-Cuban influences. As the unemployed sugar and coffee workers, sponsored by local industries, participated in the summer festivities, the popularity of Summer Carnaval increased.[19] By the 1940s and 1950s, Carnaval in Santiago and Havana became more commercialized.[19]
Attempts were made to civilize the traditional festivities, and Winter Carnival was created as a more "civilized" counterpart to the traditional summer celebrations. However, Winter Carnival did not last long due to its individualistic nature. The term "carnaval" eventually replaced other names for the celebrations, such as mamarrachos or mascaradas, despite objections from traditionalists who preferred the original term "Los Mamarrachos."[20]
↑ Sg. and pl.; from Arabic muharrig "clown."[5] Various meanings in modern Castilian. "Historically, a group of masked or costumed persons who danced rhythmically in the streets following the parrandas or comparsas during the major festivals in July. These characters originally gained such importance in the Santiago carnival that carnival itself became identified as the Fiesta de mamarrachos, and was thus called until the present century."[4]
↑ Fernando Ortíz, in "Las comparsas populares del Carnaval habanero" in Estudios Afrocubanos, vol, V, La Habana, 1954-6, p.132, observed that there is a chain of festivals that extends from Christmas Eve to the Spring Equinox, probably having their ancient origins in agricultural rites. Ortíz was referring specifically to the city of Havana, but these festivals are common to all Spanish-speaking cultures.
↑ Costumes were imported or made locally and worn by well-to-do attenders of masked balls. Parodies of famous people, living or dead, dominos, harlequins, etc. were popular. Poor people wore normal clothes and smeared their faces with colored greases or pastes, or wore inexpensive masks.[10]
↑ A third type, the comparsa carabalí, was not mentioned in documents until 1902,[12] but "according to the testimony of some descendants of the founders of the Cabildo [Carabalí Isuama], it existed before the later stages of the colonial era."[13]
↑ In both written sources and spoken language, the terms "comparsa," "conga" and "paseo" may be used in an inconsistent way.[14]
↑ The tajona was a type of parade music and dance of the Haitianos or Haitian-Cubans.[15]
↑ A conguero is someone who participates in a conga as a musician or dancer.
↑ Pérez says: "The prohibitions of fiestas in 1869 reflect the prevailing state of [The Ten Years'] war which, though not stated explicitly, can be seen in the interest of the authorities in maintaining the 'tranquility' of the population."[16]
↑ It was the custom for comparsas and relaciones to enter the houses of the well-to-do and perform in hopes of getting a tip. Some people took advantage of the custom by forming groups who rehearsed very little, forced their way into people’s houses, gave a perfunctory performance and then urged the hosts to give them as large a tip as possible.[17]
↑ See, for example, an article by José Mas y Perez, dated 1884, but from a reproduction in La Independencia of July 24, 1922, cited in Pérez I 1988:113-4.
↑ First mentioned in 1679, but certainly occurring before that date.[18]
↑ A pre-Lenten carnival could not, of course, be attended by seasonal workers, most of whom were Afro-Cubans, because it would fall during the zafra.
Carnival or Shrovetide is a festive season that occurs at the close of the Christian pre-Lenten period, consisting of Quinquagesima or Shrove Sunday, Shrove Monday, and Shrove Tuesday or Mardi Gras.
A comparsa is a group of singers, musicians and dancers that take part in carnivals and other festivities in Spain and Latin America. Its precise meaning depends on the specific regional celebration. The most famous comparsas are those that participate in the Carnival of Santiago de Cuba and Carnaval de Barranquilla in Colombia. In Brazil, comparsas are called carnival blocks, as those seen in the Carnival of Rio de Janeiro and other Brazilian carnivals. In the US, especially at the New Orleans Mardi Gras, comparsas are called krewes, which include floats.
The term conga refers to the music groups within Cuban comparsas and the music they play. Comparsas are large ensembles of musicians, singers and dancers with a specific costume and choreography which perform in the street carnivals of Santiago de Cuba, Camaguey, and Havana.
Bogotá's Carnival or Carnival of Bogotá is celebrated in Bogotá every year on August 5 and August 6 for the city's anniversary of its Hispanic foundation. Most of the cultural events take place in the heart of Parque Metropolitano Simón Bolívar The festivities also include pre-carnival celebrations during the month of July. One of the main objectives of the carnival is to promote and encourage the cultural and musical diversity of Colombia.
Blacks and Whites' Carnival, is a Carnival public festival and parade in southern Colombia established in 1546. Although its geographical location belongs to the city of Pasto, it has been adopted by other municipalities in Nariño and southwestern Colombia. It is celebrated every year in 2–7 January and attracts a considerable number of Colombian and foreign tourists.
The Barranquilla Carnival is one of Colombia's most important folkloric celebrations, and one of the biggest carnivals in the world. The carnival has traditions that date back to the 19th century. Four days before Lent, Barranquilla decks itself out to receive national and foreign tourists to join together with the city's inhabitants to enjoy four days of intense festivities. During the carnival, Barranquilla's normal activities are put aside as the city gets busy with street dances, musical and masquerade parades. The Carnival Of Barranquilla includes dances such as the Spanish paleo, African Congo, and indigenous mice y mica's. Many styles of Colombian music are also performed, most prominently cumbia, and instruments include drums and wind ensembles. The Carnival of Barranquilla was proclaimed a Cultural Masterpiece of the Nation by Colombia's National Congress in 2002. Also the UNESCO, in Paris on November 7, 2003, declared it one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and it was during Olga Lucia Rodriguez Carnival Queen year.
The carnival in Colombia was introduced by the Spaniards. The Colombian carnival has incorporated elements from European culture, and has managed to syncretise, or re-interpret, traditions that belonged to the African and Amerindian cultures of Colombia. There is documentary evidence that the carnival existed in Colombia in the 17th century and had already caused concern to the colonial authorities, who censored the celebrations, especially in the main centers of power such as Cartagena, Bogotá and Popayán. The carnival, therefore, continued its evolution and re-interpretation in the small and at that time unimportant towns where celebrations did not offend the ruling elites. The result was the uninterrupted celebration of carnival festivals in Barranquilla, and other villages along the lower Magdalena River in northern Colombia, and in Pasto, Nariño in the south of the country. In modern times, there have been attempts to introduce the carnival in the capital, Bogotá, in the early 20th century, but it has always failed to gain the approval of authorities. The Bogotá Carnival has had to wait until the 21st century to be resurrected, this time, by the authorities of the city. Colombia is recognized by its large variety of festivals, carnivals and fairs. Most towns have their own, ranging from those celebrating coffee to the ones held in honor of the town's Saint feast. The common characteristics of the festivals are the nomination of a beauty Queen and the setting up of public dance floor.
A vejigante is a folkloric character in Puerto Rican festival celebrations, mainly seen during Carnival time. Traditional colors of the Vejigantes were green, yellow and red, or red and black. Today, Vejigantes wear brightly colored, ornate masks corresponding to the colors of their costumes that detail bat-like wings. The term vejigante derives from the words vejiga (bladder) and gigante (giant) due to custom of blowing up and painting cow bladders. The masks are often linked to festivals that continue today, especially in Loíza and Ponce.
The Carnival in Rio de Janeiro is a festival held every year before Lent; it is considered the biggest celebration of Carnival in the world, with two million people per day on the streets. The first Carnival festival in Rio occurred in 1723.
The Carnival of Cádiz is one of the best-known carnivals in Spain. Its main characteristic is humor. Through sarcasm, mockery and irony, the main groups and the people of the street "purge" the most pressing problems of today. The whole city participates in the carnival for more than two weeks each year, and the presence of this fiesta is almost constant in the city because of the recitals and contests held throughout the year.
The Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is held each February–March –depending on the year– in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of the largest island of the Canary Islands, Spain and attracts people from all over the world.
The Carnival in the Dominican Republic is celebrated in most cities and towns in the main streets of the country. Among its most notable characteristics are its flashy elaborate costumes and traditional masks. The carnival held in the city of La Vega, which is one of the biggest in the country, and the national parade in Santo Domingo, were the first Carnivals held in the Americas in the early 1500s.
Haitian Carnival is a celebration held over several weeks each year leading up to Mardi Gras. Haitian Defile Kanaval is the Haitian Creole name of the main annual Mardi Gras carnival held in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
Carnival in Mexico is celebrated by about 225 communities in various ways, with the largest and best known modern celebrations occurring in Mazatlán and the city of Veracruz.
The Carnivals of Iztapalapa are various Carnival celebrations in the Mexico City borough of Iztapalapa. They are what remain of Carnival celebrations brought to Mexico City by the Spanish but subsequently suppressed by Inquisition authorities. There are individual celebrations in various communities, but for the close of Carnival, these communities come together for an event that can draw up to 200,000 people.
Carnival in Uruguay is a festival that takes place every year in Uruguay from mid January to late February. It is considered to be the longest carnival in the world. The Carnival draws root from candombe, Murga and tablados, which are forms of expression of Uruguayan culture through dance and music. From its conception, the Uruguayan Carnival has evolved into a dance parade in which different comparsas, groups of street performers in Latin American festivals, play the drums and dance at the "Desfile Inaugural del Carnaval" and "Desfile de Llamadas" parade. The biggest carnival celebrations are in the capital Montevideo and can last up to 40 days. They involve a series of cultural events such as dance parades in the streets, street stages called "tablados" and an artistic contest in the "Teatro de Verano" in Montevideo.
Jember Fashion Carnaval or JFC is an annual carnival held in the East Java city of Jember. Officially it is written as Jember Fashion Carnaval; the word carnival here is officially spelled as carnaval, probably a confusion with Indonesian spelling karnaval, or an influence of the Dutch spelling carnaval. Jember Fashion Carnival has no relation with the Christian pre-Lenten festival, but more of a festivities in general, roughly following the Brazilian style and the Canary Islands style, with procession of dancers in extravagant costumes, with emphasis on the traditional Indonesian motif.
Tahona, alternatively spelled tajona due to its pronunciation or taona, is a secular style of Afro-Cuban music developed in the 19th century in Santiago de Cuba after the arrival of Haitian slaves following the Haitian Revolution. It is named after the ensembles and the drums played by them. It is considered one of the oldest styles within the rumba complex, and its performance became rare by the 20th century.
The first African drums were heard in Cuba, since the 16th century, only during the celebration of certain feasts, such as the Día de Reyes and Carnestolendas or Carnival, because their use was restricted to some mutual aid societies, called "Cabildos de nación", where enslaved Africans and their descendants were allowed to gather and practice their cultural and religious traditions such as Santeria and Palo Mayombe.
References
Bettelheim, Judith (1993). Cuban Festivals: An Illustrated Anthology. New York: Garland Publishing.
Bettelheim, Judith (2001) [1993]. "Carnival in Santiago de Cuba". In Bettelheim, Judith (ed.). Cuban Festivals. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. ISBN976-637-001-X.
Bettelheim, Judith (25 January 2010) [April 1991]. Coleman, James S. (ed.). "Negotiations of Power in Carnaval Culture in Santiago de Cuba". African Arts. Vol.24. African Studies Center (published 1991).
Brea, Rafael; Millet, José (2001) [1993]. "Glossary of Popular Festivals". In Bettelheim, Judith (ed.). Cuban Festivals. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. ISBN976-637-001-X.
del Carmen, Maria; Hernández, Yohemis; González, Carlos Alberto (July 2006). "Carnaval Santiago"[Santiago Carnival]. La Cultura en Santiago de Cuba[Culture in Santiago de Cuba] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on February 24, 2007. Retrieved June 22, 2024.
Dale, Olsen A.; Daniel, Sheehy E. (2003). "Cuba". In Henken, Ted (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Cuba. Vol.2. Duke University Press.
Figueredo, D. H. (1998). "Carnivals". In Olsen, Dale A. (ed.). Dictionary of the Middle Ages. New York: Garland.
"Mamarracho, Cha". Diccionario de la Lengua Española[Dictionary of the Spanish Language] (Dictionary entry) (in Spanish). Real Academia Española. 2024. Retrieved June 22, 2024.
Pérez, Nancy (1988). El Carnaval Santiaguero[The Santiago Carnival] (in Spanish). Vol.I. Santiago de Cuba: Editorial Oriente.
Pérez, Nancy (1988). El Carnaval Santiaguero[The Santiago Carnival] (in Spanish). Vol.II. Santiago de Cuba: Editorial Oriente.
William, Luis (2000). Culture and Customs of Cuba. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
Discography
Carnaval à Santiago de Cuba; Le Chant du Monde LDX-A-4250
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