Civilian victimization

Last updated

Civilian victimization is the intentional use of violence against noncombatants in a conflict. [1] [2] [3] It includes both lethal forms of violence (such as killings), as well as non-lethal forms of violence such as torture, forced expulsion, and rape. [1] According to this definition, civilian victimization is only a subset of harm that occurs to civilians during conflict, excluding that considered collateral damage of military activity. However, "the distinction between intentional and unintentional violence is highly ambivalent" and difficult to determine in many cases. [4]

Contents

Scholars have identified various factors that may either provide incentives for the use of violence against civilians, or create incentives for restraint. Violence against civilians occurs in many types of civil conflict, [5] and can include any acts in which force is used to harm or damage civilians or civilian targets. It can be lethal or nonlethal. During periods of armed conflict, there are structures, actors, and processes at a number of levels that affect the likelihood of violence against civilians. [6]

Violence towards civilians is not “irrational, random, or the result of ancient hatreds between ethnic groups.” [7] : 91  Rather, violence against civilians may be used strategically in a variety of ways, including attempts to increase civilian cooperation and support; increase costs to an opponent by targeting their civilian supporters; and physically separate an opponent from its civilian supporters by removing civilians from an area. [8]

Patterns of violence towards civilians can be described at a variety of levels and a number of determinants of violence against civilians have been identified.

Describing patterns of violence

Francisco Gutiérrez-Sanín and Elisabeth Jean Wood have proposed a conceptualization of political violence that describes an actor in terms of its pattern of violence, [6] based on the "repertoire, targeting, frequency, and technique in which it regularly engages." [9] Actors can include any organized group fighting for political objectives. [6] Repertoire covers the forms of violence used; targeting identifies the those attacked in terms of social group; frequency is the measurable occurrence of violence; and techniques are the types of weapons or technology used. This framework can be applied to observed patterns of violence without considering the intentionality of the actor. [9] Other frameworks focus on motivation of the actor. [6]

Repertoires may include both lethal forms of violence against civilians such as killings, massacres, bombings, and terrorist attacks, and nonlethal forms of violence, [6] such as forced displacement [10] and sexual violence. [11] In indirect violence heavy weapons such as tanks or fighter planes are used remotely and unilaterally. In direct violence perpetrators act face-to-face with the victims using small weapons such as machetes or rifles. [6]

Targets may be chosen collectively, as members of a particular ethnic, religious, or political group. This is sometimes referred to as categorical violence. [12] Targets may also be chosen selectively, identifying specific individuals who are seen as opposing a political group or aiding its opponents. [13]

Techniques can vary greatly depending on the level of technology and amount of resources available to combatants. There are considerable impacts of technology over time, including the introduction of new technologies of rebellion. For example, changes in communication infrastructure may affect violence against civilians. If such technology facilitates organization by armed groups and increases contests over territory, violence against civilians in those areas is also likely to increase. [14] As government surveillance of digital information increases, the use of targeted, selective violence against civilians by governments has been shown to increase. [15]

Analysis of levels of violence

Theoretical explanations at various levels of analysis can co-exist and interact with one another. The following levels of analysis can be useful in understanding such dynamics: [6]

International

At the international level, institutions, ideologies and the distribution of power and resources shape technologies of rebellion and political interactions, including both international and domestic wars. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union provided military and financial backing to both governments and rebellious groups, who engaged in irregular civil wars. Such conflicts frequently involve the use of violence to control civilians and territory. [6] The decade following the dissolution of the Soviet Union was marked by a decline in worldwide battle deaths and the number of armed conflicts in the world. [16]

International norms and ideas also influence conflict and the use of violence against civilians. [6] The period following World War II, from 1946 to 2013, has also been regarded as showing a decline in conflict. [17] The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1946. [18] International actors signed the Genocide Convention in 1948 and the Geneva Conventions in 1949, formalizing protections for noncombatants and international norms for human rights and humanitarian standards. [19] Transnational non-governmental organizations such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International have become active in surfacing information, advocating for human rights, mobilizing international public opinion, and influencing both social norms and international law. [20]

Interactions between foreign governments and rebel groups who receive their support can affect violence against civilians. Groups receiving external support become less dependent on local civilian populations and have less incentive to limit violence against civilians. Foreign aid to rebels is associated with higher levels of both combat-related death and civilian targeting. However, foreign actors that are democracies or have strong human rights lobbies are less likely to support groups that engage in violence against civilians. [21]

The international strategic environment also shapes government perceptions of threat. Perceptions of threat due to external military intervention may lead to increases in governmental mass killing of civilians [22] and violence against domestic out-groups. [23]

The scrutiny and criticism of international and domestic actors can affect government use of violence, by increasing the perceived costs of violence against civilians. Governments and rebel groups that are vulnerable domestically and that seek international legitimacy are more likely to comply with international humanitarian law and exercise restraint toward civilians. [6]

Domestic and subnational

Political organization occurs not just at a national level, but at many levels, including provinces, states, legislative districts, and cities. In many countries, national and local politics differ in scale and in the extent to which subnational governments afford and support their citizen's political rights and civil liberties. [24]

Relationships between government (at various levels), armed groups and domestic populations affect violence against civilians. Governments that rely on a broad base of domestic and institutional support are more likely to exercise restraint toward civilians. These may include democratic governments, inclusive governments, and governments in which institutions have not consolidated power. [19]

Similarly, rebel groups that need the support of a broad domestic constituency or of local civilians are less likely to target civilians and to engage in terrorism. Rebel groups whose political constituents live in the area that they control are more likely to use governance structures like elections to obtain cooperation and less likely to use political violence. Rebel groups that control areas inhabited by nonconstituents are more likely to use violence to obtain resources and cooperation. [6]

Ideology may strongly influence the ways in which governments and rebels define their constituencies, affecting patterns of violence. Where national, subnational or local institutions follow exclusionary ideologies, ethnic or other out-groups may become identified as nonconstituents and targeted, sometimes to the point of displacement, ethnic cleansing or genocide. [25] [26] [6] [9]

Violence against civilians may vary over space and time with the extent to which military forces are contesting a territory. Stathis Kalyvas has theorized that selective violence is more likely to occur where control is asymmetric, with one group exercising dominant but not complete control of an area. Indiscriminate violence may be more likely to occur where one side controls an area. [6] [13] It has also been shown that indiscriminate violence is more likely to occur at a distance from a country's center of power. [27]

Opinions differ widely on whether there is a relationship between the relative military capacity of a government or rebel group and the likelihood that it will engage in patterns of violence against civilians. This may also vary depending on the type of violence involved. [6] However, there is evidence that cutting off access to external sources of support may cause a group to become more dependent on the support of its local population and less likely to engage in violence against civilians. [28]

Organizational

At the organizational level, researchers have examined the dynamics and ideology of armed groups: how they recruit and train their members, how organizational norms about the use of violence against civilians are established and maintained, and the role of group leaders and political ideology in shaping organizations and behavior. While some studies argue that violence against civilians reflects a lack of control over an organization's members and the absence of norms that inhibit violence, other researchers emphasize the social dynamics of armed groups and ways in which they may actively break down social norms that inhibit violence. [6]

Jeremy Weinstein has argued that armed groups develop certain organizational structures and characteristics as a result of their available resources. According to this view, organizations that depend on external resources are predicted to attract low-commitment members, and have trouble controlling their use of violence against civilians. Organizations that are dependent on local resources will tend to attract higher-commitment, ideologically motivated members from local communities, which will help to control their use of violence against civilians. [29]

Other researchers focus on organizational structure and its effects on behavior, without assuming that they are driven by resource endowment. [6] They suggest that processes of education, training, and organizational control are important both in producing strategic violence [30] and in establishing restraints against the use of violence against civilians. [31]

The ideology of armed groups is a key factor influencing both their organizational structure and member behavior. [9] [32] Some Marxist groups, which emphasize political education, have been less likely to use violence against civilians. [6] The ideology of other armed groups, including governments, can actively promote violence and direct it at particular targets. Such groups often use "exclusionary ethnic or national ideologies or narratives" [25] which have resulted in mass killings and genocide. [33]

Accounts from multiple countries have documented the "practice, norms, and other socialization processes" which armed groups have used to gain recruits, socialize group members, establish new norms of behavior and build group cohesion. Methods can include forced recruitment, systematic brutalization, and gang rape. Such groups create a “culture of violence” in which "horrifying acts of cruelty" are directed at both group members and civilians and become routine. The risk to civilians from such organizations is high. [6]

Individual

On an individual level, people may be influenced to participate in armed conflicts due to economic motivations or incentive structures. Research in this area often views violence against civilians as a by-product of economic processes such as competition for resources. [6]

Researchers have also studied emotional and psychological factors relating to the use of violence, which are generally related to other factors such as strategy, opportunity, socialization, and other group-level processes. The emotions of shame, disgust, resentment, and anger have been linked to violence against civilians. [6] While research suggests that emotions such as fear affect the polarization of attitudes, material and structural opportunities are important mediators of the expression of violence. [34]

At the individual level, researchers are examining the category of “civilian" in greater detail, to better understand the use of violence against different types of noncombatants. Such research also emphasizes the agency of civilians who are themselves actors during wartime and the ways in which they may respond to armed groups. [6] There is evidence to suggest that local civilian institutions can sometimes mitigate violence by governments and rebel groups. [35] [36] Research also examines concerns such as the use of violence against humanitarian aid workers, [37] and the targeting of women. [38] [39]

Consequences of violence against civilians

A relatively new area of research asks how individuals, groups, communities and domestic and international audiences respond to violence against civilians. Legacies of violence can last for many years and across generations, long after the violence occurred. Evidence on the effects of wartime violence on ethnic polarization is mixed. [6]

Research from various countries suggests that civilian responses to violence are not uniform. However, civilians do blame actors who have acted violently against their communities, and may withdraw their support, provide support to opposing forces, or vote for an opposing political party in elections. Such outcomes are more likely to occur in the area where the violence was experienced, and when the perpetrators of violence are considered outsiders. [6]

Individuals are likely to respond to violence by rejecting the ideology of the perpetrating group, particularly if the violence was severe. [40] [41] Those exposed to violence are likely to engage in prosocial behavior and to increase their political engagement. [42]

Research on the effectiveness of groups using violence against civilians in gaining political ends is mixed. [6] Macro-level evidence suggests that rebel groups are likely to gain support from Western international actors in situations where governments are employing violence against civilians and rebel groups are showing restraint towards civilians. [43] The United Nations is more likely to deploy peacekeepers when conflicts involve high levels of violence towards civilians. However, peacekeeping missions are more likely to be effective at protecting civilians from rebel groups than from governments. [6]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Civil war</span> War within a country

A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same state . The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies. The term is a calque of Latin bellum civile which was used to refer to the various civil wars of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Democide</span> Government-sanctioned killing

Democide refers to "the intentional killing of an unarmed or disarmed person by government agents acting in their authoritative capacity and pursuant to government policy or high command." The term was first coined by Holocaust historian and statistics expert, R.J. Rummel in his book Death by Government, but has also been described as a better term than genocide to refer to certain types of mass killings, by renowned Holocaust historian Yehuda Bauer. According to Rummel, this definition covers a wide range of deaths, including forced labor and concentration camp victims, extrajudicial summary killings, and mass deaths due to governmental acts of criminal omission and neglect, such as in deliberate famines like the Holodomor, as well as killings by de facto governments, for example, killings during a civil war. This definition covers any murder of any number of persons by any government.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genocide</span> Intentional destruction of a people

Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Terrorism</span> Use of violence to achieve aims

Terrorism, in its broadest sense, is the use of violence against non-combatants to achieve political or ideological aims. The term is used in this regard primarily to refer to intentional violence during peacetime or in the context of war against non-combatants. There are various different definitions of terrorism, with no universal agreement about it. Different definitions of terrorism emphasize its randomness, its aim to instill fear, and its broader impact beyond its immediate victims.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethnic conflict</span> Conflict between ethnic groups

An ethnic conflict is a conflict between two or more ethnic groups. While the source of the conflict may be political, social, economic or religious, the individuals in conflict must expressly fight for their ethnic group's position within society. This criterion differentiates ethnic conflict from other forms of struggle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peacekeeping</span> Activities intended to create conditions that favour lasting peace

Peacekeeping comprises activities, especially military ones, intended to create conditions that favor lasting peace. Research generally finds that peacekeeping reduces civilian and battlefield deaths, as well as reduces the risk of renewed warfare.

There is no consensus, scholarly or legal, on the definition of terrorism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Insurgency</span> Revolt or uprising by irregular forces

An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare against a larger authority. The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric nature: small irregular forces face a large, well-equipped, regular military force state adversary. Due to this asymmetry, insurgents avoid large-scale direct battles, opting instead to blend in with the civilian population where they gradually expand territorial control and military forces. Insurgency frequently hinges on control of and collaboration with local populations.

Sexual violence is any harmful or unwanted sexual act—or attempt to obtain a sexual act through violence or coercion—or an act directed against a person's sexuality without their consent, by any individual regardless of their relationship to the victim. This includes forced engagement in sexual acts, attempted or completed, and may be physical, psychological, or verbal. It occurs in times of peace and armed conflict situations, is widespread, and is considered to be one of the most traumatic, pervasive, and most common human rights violations.

Decapitation is a military strategy aimed at removing the leadership or command and control of a hostile government or group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Counterinsurgency</span> Military operation aimed at defeating insurgent forces

Counterinsurgency is "the totality of actions aimed at defeating irregular forces". The Oxford English Dictionary defines counterinsurgency as any "military or political action taken against the activities of guerrillas or revolutionaries" and can be considered war by a state against a non-state adversary. Insurgency and counterinsurgency campaigns have been waged since ancient history. However, modern thinking on counterinsurgency was developed during decolonization.

The responsibility to protect is a global political commitment which was endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly at the 2005 World Summit in order to address its four key concerns to prevent genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity. The doctrine is regarded as a unanimous and well-established international norm over the past two decades.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethiopian Civil War</span> 1974–1991 conflict in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian Civil War was a civil war in Ethiopia and present-day Eritrea, fought between the Ethiopian military junta known as the Derg and Ethiopian-Eritrean anti-government rebels from 12 September 1974 to 28 May 1991.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Political violence</span> Violence conducted with political goals

Political violence is violence which is perpetrated in order to achieve political goals. It can include violence which is used by a state against other states (war), violence which is used by a state against civilians and non-state actors, and violence which is used by violent non-state actors against states and civilians. It can also describe politically motivated violence which is used by violent non-state actors against a state or it can describe violence which is used against other non-state actors and/or civilians. Non-action on the part of a government can also be characterized as a form of political violence, such as refusing to alleviate famine or otherwise denying resources to politically identifiable groups within their territory.

Violence against men comprises violent acts that are disproportionately committed against men or boys. Men are overrepresented as both victims and perpetrators of violence. Violence against women is the opposite category, where acts of violence are targeted against the female gender.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Risk factors for genocide</span> Signs of active or impending genocide

The assessment of risk factors for genocide is an upstream mechanism for genocide prevention. The goal is to apply an assessment of risk factors to improve the predictive capability of the international community before the killing begins, and prevent it. There may be many warning signs that a country may be leaning in the direction of a future genocide. If signs are presented, the international community takes notes of them and watches over the countries that have a higher risk. Many different scholars, and international groups, have come up with different factors that they think should be considered while examining whether a nation is at risk or not. One predominant scholar in the field James Waller came up with his own four categories of risk factors: governance, conflict history, economic conditions, and social fragmentation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genocide prevention</span> Any act or actions that works toward averting future genocides

Prevention of genocide is any action that works toward averting future genocides. Genocides take a lot of planning, resources, and involved parties to carry out, they do not just happen instantaneously. Scholars in the field of genocide studies have identified a set of widely agreed upon risk factors that make a country or social group more at risk of carrying out a genocide, which include a wide range of political and cultural factors that create a context in which genocide is more likely, such as political upheaval or regime change, as well as psychological phenomena that can be manipulated and taken advantage of in large groups of people, like conformity and cognitive dissonance. Genocide prevention depends heavily on the knowledge and surveillance of these risk factors, as well as the identification of early warning signs of genocide beginning to occur.

Child soldiers in Uganda are members of the Lord's Resistance Army, a rebel group that has been abducting young people since 1987 to fill out their ranks. Children and youth are usually abducted from their homes, often with one or more others, and in characteristically violent ways. New abductees are subjected to an intense period of integration and homogenization. Once indoctrinated, recruits are retained by threats of violence, cultivation of an intense in-group identity, and a belief in spiritual monitoring and punishment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">War and genocide</span> Connection between the fields of Genocide and warfare

War and genocide studies is an interdisciplinary subject that identifies and analyzes the relationship between war and genocide, as well as the structural foundations of associated conflicts. Disciplines involved may include political science, geography, economics, sociology, international relations, and history.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Persecution of Amhara people</span>

Since the 1990s, the Amhara people of Ethiopia have been subject to ethnic violence, including massacres by Tigrayan, Oromo and Gumuz ethnic groups among others, which some have characterized as a genocide. Large-scale killings and grave human rights violations followed the implementation of the ethnic-federalist system in the country. In most of the cases, the mass murders were silent with perpetrators from various ethno-militant groups—from TPLF/TDF, OLF–OLA, and Gumuz armed groups.

References

  1. 1 2 Downes, Alexander B.; Rangazas, Stephen (2023), "Civilian Victimization During Conflict", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of International Studies, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.013.609, ISBN   978-0-19-084662-6, civilian victimization—the intentional use of violence against noncombatants
  2. ↑ Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2006). The Logic of Violence in Civil War. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN   978-0-521-85409-2.
  3. ↑ Downes, Alexander B. (2008). Targeting Civilians in War. Cornell University Press. p. 15. ISBN   978-0-8014-7837-6. JSTOR   10.7591/j.ctt7zc0h.
  4. ↑ Besaw, Clayton; Ritter, Kellan; Tezcür, Güneş Murat (12 July 2023). "Beyond Collateral Damage: The Politics of Civilian Victimization in a Civil War". Global Studies Quarterly. 3 (3). doi:10.1093/isagsq/ksad050.
  5. ↑ Davenport, Christian; Mokleiv Nygård, Håvard; Fjelde, Hanne; Armstrong, David (11 May 2019). "The Consequences of Contention: Understanding the Aftereffects of Political Conflict and Violence". Annual Review of Political Science. 22 (1): 361–377. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064057 .
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Balcells, Laia; Stanton, Jessica A. (11 May 2021). "Violence Against Civilians During Armed Conflict: Moving Beyond the Macro- and Micro-Level Divide". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 45–69. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102229 .
  7. ↑ Valentino, Benjamin A. (11 May 2014). "Why We Kill: The Political Science of Political Violence against Civilians". Annual Review of Political Science. 17 (1): 89–103. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-082112-141937 .
  8. ↑ Kydd, Andrew H.; Walter, Barbara F. (July 2006). "The Strategies of Terrorism". International Security. 31 (1): 49–80. doi:10.1162/isec.2006.31.1.49. S2CID   57564130.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Gutiérrez-Sanín, Francisco; Wood, Elisabeth Jean (March 2017). "What Should We Mean by "Pattern of Political Violence"? Repertoire, Targeting, Frequency, and Technique". Perspectives on Politics. 15 (1): 20–41. doi:10.1017/S1537592716004114. S2CID   152120740 . Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  10. ↑ Lichtenheld, Adam G. (2020). "Explaining Population Displacement Strategies in Civil Wars: A Cross-National Analysis". International Organization. 74 (2): 253–294. doi:10.1017/S0020818320000089. S2CID   226864410 . Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  11. ↑ Nordås, Ragnhild; Cohen, Dara Kay (11 May 2021). "Conflict-Related Sexual Violence". Annual Review of Political Science. 24 (1): 193–211. doi: 10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-102620 .
  12. ↑ Goodwin, J. (1 June 2006). "A Theory of Categorical Terrorism" (PDF). Social Forces. 84 (4): 2027–2046. doi:10.1353/sof.2006.0090. S2CID   9059799 . Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  13. 1 2 Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2006). The logic of violence in civil war. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780511818462.
  14. ↑ Pierskalla, Jan H.; Hollenbach, Florian M. (May 2013). "Technology and Collective Action: The Effect of Cell Phone Coverage on Political Violence in Africa". American Political Science Review. 107 (2): 207–224. doi:10.1017/S0003055413000075. S2CID   86861315 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  15. ↑ Gohdes, Anita R. (July 2020). "Repression Technology: Internet Accessibility and State Violence" (PDF). American Journal of Political Science. 64 (3): 488–503. doi:10.1111/ajps.12509. S2CID   212686303 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  16. ↑ Pettersson, Therése; Wallensteen, Peter (July 2015). "Armed conflicts, 1946–2014". Journal of Peace Research. 52 (4): 536–550. doi: 10.1177/0022343315595927 . S2CID   117599247.
  17. ↑ Cederman, Lars-Erik; Pengl, Yannick (May 21, 2019). Global Conflict Trends and their Consequences (PDF). ETH Zürich. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
  18. ↑ Green, Chandler (December 5, 2018). "70 Years of Impact: Insights on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations Foundation. Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  19. 1 2 Stanton, Jessica A. (2016). Violence and restraint in civil war : civilian targeting in the shadow of international law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9781107670945.
  20. ↑ Clark, Ann Marie (2001). Diplomacy of conscience : Amnesty International and changing human rights norms. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN   9780691057439 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  21. ↑ Salehyan, Idean; Siroky, David; Wood, Reed M. (2014). "External Rebel Sponsorship and Civilian Abuse: A Principal-Agent Analysis of Wartime Atrocities". International Organization. 68 (3): 633–661. doi:10.1017/S002081831400006X. S2CID   51759138 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  22. ↑ Kathman, Jacob D.; Wood, Reed M. (October 2011). "Managing Threat, Cost, and Incentive to Kill: The Short- and Long-Term Effects of Intervention in Mass Killings". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 55 (5): 735–760. doi:10.1177/0022002711408006. S2CID   145323071 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  23. ↑ Uzonyi, Gary (July 2018). "Interstate rivalry, genocide, and politicide". Journal of Peace Research. 55 (4): 476–490. doi:10.1177/0022343317741186. S2CID   115519892 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  24. ↑ Gibson, Edward L. (August 2010). "Politics of the Periphery: An Introduction to Subnational Authoritarianism and Democratization in Latin America". Journal of Politics in Latin America. 2 (2): 3–12. doi: 10.1177/1866802X1000200201 .
  25. 1 2 Straus, Scott (2015). Making and Unmaking Nations : War, Leadership, and Genocide in Modern Africa. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN   978-0801479687.
  26. ↑ Steele, Abbey (2017). Democracy and displacement in Colombia's civil war. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN   978-1-5017-1373-6.
  27. ↑ Schutte, Sebastian (July 2017). "Geographic determinants of indiscriminate violence in civil wars". Conflict Management and Peace Science. 34 (4): 380–405. doi:10.1177/0738894215593690. JSTOR   26271471. S2CID   151467497 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  28. ↑ Zhukov, Yuri M. (January 2017). "External Resources and Indiscriminate Violence: Evidence from German-Occupied Belarus". World Politics. 69 (1): 54–97. doi:10.1017/S0043887116000137. S2CID   41023436 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  29. ↑ Weinstein, Jeremy M. (2007). Inside rebellion : the politics of insurgent violence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0521860772.
  30. ↑ Manekin, Devorah S. (2020). Regular soldiers, irregular war : violence and restraint in the second intifada. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN   9781501750458.
  31. ↑ Hoover Green, Amelia (2018). The commander's dilemma : violence and restraint in wartime. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN   9781501726477.
  32. ↑ Leader Maynard, Jonathan (September 2019). "Ideology and armed conflict" (PDF). Journal of Peace Research. 56 (5): 635–649. doi:10.1177/0022343319826629. S2CID   146011539 . Retrieved 20 August 2021.
  33. ↑ Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final solutions : mass killing and genocide in the twentieth century. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN   978-0-8014-3965-0.
  34. ↑ McDoom, Omar Shahabudin (October 2012). "The Psychology of Threat in Intergroup Conflict: Emotions, Rationality, and Opportunity in the Rwandan Genocide". International Security. 37 (2): 119–155. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00100. S2CID   53618644 . Retrieved 21 August 2021.
  35. ↑ Kaplan, Oliver Ross (2017). Resisting war : how communities protect themselves. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9781316671887.
  36. ↑ Gowrinathan, Nimmi; Mampilly, Zachariah (1 October 2019). "Resistance and Repression under the Rule of Rebels: Women, Clergy, and Civilian Agency in LTTE Governed Sri Lanka". Comparative Politics. 52 (1): 1–20. doi:10.5129/001041519X15698352040097. S2CID   211341171.
  37. ↑ Narang, Neil; Stanton, Jessica A. (1 March 2017). "A Strategic Logic of Attacking Aid Workers: Evidence from Violence in Afghanistan". International Studies Quarterly. 61 (1): 38–51. doi:10.1093/isq/sqw053 . Retrieved 21 August 2021.
  38. ↑ Leatherman, Janie (2007). "Sexual Violence and Armed Conflict: Complex Dynamics of Re-Victimization" (PDF). International Journal of Peace Studies. 12 (1): 53–71. Retrieved 21 August 2021.
  39. ↑ Wood, Elisabeth Jean (December 2018). "Rape as a Practice of War: Toward a Typology of Political Violence" (PDF). Politics & Society. 46 (4): 513–537. doi:10.1177/0032329218773710. S2CID   158990694 . Retrieved 21 August 2021.
  40. ↑ Balcells, Laia (September 2012). "The Consequences of Victimization on Political Identities: Evidence from Spain" (PDF). Politics & Society. 40 (3): 311–347. doi:10.1177/0032329211424721. S2CID   56161952 . Retrieved 21 August 2021.
  41. ↑ Costalli, Stefano; Ruggeri, Andrea (January 2015). "Forging political entrepreneurs: Civil war effects on post-conflict politics in Italy". Political Geography. 44: 40–49. doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.08.008 . Retrieved 21 August 2021.
  42. ↑ Bauer, Michal; Blattman, Christopher; Chytilová, Julie; Henrich, Joseph; Miguel, Edward; Mitts, Tamar (1 August 2016). "Can War Foster Cooperation?". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 30 (3): 249–274. doi: 10.1257/jep.30.3.249 . hdl: 10419/145288 . S2CID   51827402.
  43. ↑ Stanton, Jessica A. (2020). "Rebel Groups, International Humanitarian Law, and Civil War Outcomes in the Post-Cold War Era". International Organization. 74 (3): 523–559. doi:10.1017/S0020818320000090. S2CID   218955417 . Retrieved 21 August 2021.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.